Geometrical Optics

Geometrical light rays

Ray matrices and ray vectors
Matrices for various optical
components
The Lens Makers Formula
Imaging and the Lens Law
Mapping angle to position
Prof. Rick Trebino, Georgia Tech
www.frog.gatech.edu
Geometrical optics (ray optics) is the
simplest version of optics.
Ray
optics
Its the roughest
approximation of
optical reality.

Itll handle
reflection and
refraction, but
not interference
or diffraction.

However, when it
does work, it will
handle complex
problems much
more easily than,
say, wave optics.
How will geometrical optics go wrong?
It neglects the phase.
As a result, the ray picture
implies that a lens can focus a
beam to a point with zero
diameter and so obtain infinite
intensity and infinitely good
spatial resolution.
Not true. The smallest possible
focal spot is actually about the
wavelength, . Same for the
best spatial resolution of an
image. This is fundamentally
due to the wave nature of
light, which is not included in
geometrical optics.
But it will be easy to use.
> ~
~0
Ray optics
Reality
Ray Optics
We'll define light rays as directions in space, corresponding,
roughly, to k-vectors of light waves.
Each optical system will have an optic axis, and all light rays
will be assumed to propagate at small angles to it. This is called
the Paraxial Approximation.
Optic axis
Light ray
Optical system
The Optic Axis
A mirror deflects the optic axis into a new direction with the
angle of reflection equal to the angle of incidence.
This ring laser has an optic axis that scans out a rectangle.
Optic axis
A ray propagating
through this system
We define all rays relative to the relevant optic axis.
z
0
z 0
Choosing the optic axis
We always try to choose the optic axis to make the problem as
simple as possible. Fortunately, we have the freedom to do so.
Here, the beam propagates back and forth inside a laser, so we
can use two different coordinate systems, one for the beam
propagating to the right with z increasing to the right, and another
for the beam propagating to the left with z increasing to the left.
Mirrors
Laser medium
Ray
Optic axis Optic axis
Ray
Vectors
At every position, z, along the optic axis, a light ray can be defined
by two co-ordinates:
its position, x

its slope, u
Optic axis
x
u
These parameters define a ray vector,
which will change with distance, z, as
the ray propagates through optics.
x
u
(
(

z
z
0

x
in
, u
in

x
out
, u
out

Optic
axis
z
0

0
Ray Matrices
An optical elements effect on a ray is found by multiplying the ray
vector by the elements ray matrix.
Ray vector
before lens
after lens before lens
after lens before lens
x x
A B
C D
u u
( (
(
=
( (
(


Lens 2 x 2 ray matrix
For many optical components,
we can define 2 x 2 ray matrices.
Distance 2 x 2 ray matrix
Ray matrix
for lens
Ray vector
after lens
x
in
, u
in

x
out
, u
out

We can do the
same for the
other lenses and
the distances.
Ray Matrices
as Derivatives
We can write
these equations
in matrix form.
out in
out in
D
B x
C
x A
u u
( ( (
=
( ( (

out
in
u
u
c
c
out
in
x
x
c
c
out
in
x
u c
c
out
in
x
u
c
c
Angular
magnification
Spatial
magnification
out i
out out
i n
i
n i
n n
x x
x x
x
u
u
= +
c
c
c
c
out in i
out ut
n in i
o
n
x
x
u
u
u
u
u
= +
c
c
c
c
Since the displacements, x
in
and x
out
,
and angles, u
in
and u
out
, are all
assumed to be small, we can think in
terms of partial derivatives.
For cascaded elements, we simply multiply
together all the individual ray matrices.
3 2 1 3 2 1
out in in
out in in
x x x
O O O O O O
u u u

| |
( ( (

= =
| `
( ( (

\ .
)
Notice that the order looks opposite to what it should be,
but it makes sense when you think about it.
O
1
O
3

O
2

in
in
x
u
(
(

out
out
x
u
(
(

Component #1 Component #2 Component #3
Ray Matrix for Free Space or a Medium
If x
in
and u
in
are the position and slope upon entering, let x
out
and u
out

be the position and slope after propagating an arbitrary distance, z.
out in in
out in
x x z u
u u
= +
=
x
in
, u
in

0
x
out
, u
out

z
1

0 1
out in
out in
x x z
u u
( ( (
=
( ( (

Rewriting these expressions
in matrix notation:
1
=
0 1
space
z
O
(
(

Ray Matrix for
an Interface
At the interface:
u
out
= [n
1
/ n
2
] u
in
u
in

n
1

u
out

n
2

x
in
x
out

1 2
1 0
0 /
interface
O
n n
(
=
(

which, for small angles, becomes: n
1
u
in
= n
2
u
out
Snell's Law says: n
1
sin(u
in
) = n
2
sin(u
out
)
Now calculate u
out
:
x
out
= x
in

Ray Matrix for a Curved Interface
At the interface, again:
x
out
= x
in
.
n
1
n
2

x
in
u
1

u
2

u
in

u
s

R
z
u
out

u
s

u
s
= x
in
/R
u
1
= u
in
+ x
in
/ R and u
2
= u
out
+ x
in
/ R
1 2
( / )( / ) /
out in in in
n n x R x R u u = +
Snell's Law: n
1
u
1
= n
2
u
2 1 2
( / ) ( / )
in in out in
n x R n x R u u + = +
1 2 1 2
( / ) ( / 1) /
out in in
n n n n x R u u = +
1 2 1 2
1 0
( / 1) / /
curved
interface
O
n n R n n
(
=
(

u
1
= u
in
+

u
s
and u
2
= u
out
+

u
s

To calculate u
out
, we must
calculate u
1
and u
2
.
u
s
is the surface slope at
the height x
in
.
A thin lens is just two curved interfaces.
1 2 1 2
1 0
( / 1) / /
curved
interface
O
n n R n n
(
=
(

Well neglect the glass in between (its a
really thin lens!), and well take n
1
= 1.
2 1
2 1
1 0 1 0
( 1) / [(1/ ) 1] / 1/
thin lens curved curved
interface interface
O O O
n R n n R n
( (
= =
( (


2 1 2 1
1 0 1 0
( 1) / [(1/ ) 1] / (1/ ) ( 1) / (1 ) / 1 n R n n R n n n R n R
( (
= =
( (
+ +

2 1
1 0
( 1)(1/ 1/ ) 1 n R R
(
=
(


1 0
1/ 1 f
(
(

This can be written:
1 2
1/ ( 1)(1/ 1/ ) f n R R = The Lens-Makers Formula where:
n
1
= 1
R
1
R
2

n
2
= n 1
n
1
= 1
Ray Matrix for a Lens
The quantity, f, is the focal length of the lens. Its the single most
important parameter of a lens. It can be positive or negative.
1 0
=
-1/ 1
lens
O
f
(
(

If f > 0, the lens deflects
rays toward the axis.
f > 0
If f < 0, the lens deflects
rays away from the axis.
1 2
1/ ( 1)(1/ 1/ ) f n R R =
R
1
> 0
R
2
< 0
f < 0
R
1
< 0
R
2
> 0
Its easy to extend the Lens Makers Formula to real lenses of
greater thickness.
Sign convention:
R > 0 if the sphere
center is to the
right (z > 0), and
R < 0 if the sphere
center is to the
left (z < 0).
Types of Lenses
Lens nomenclature
Which type of lens to use (and how to orient it) depends on the
aberrations and application.
A lens focuses parallel rays to a point
one focal length away.
0 1 1 0 0
/ 0 1 1/ 1 0 1/ 1 0
out in in
out in
x f x f x
x f f f u
( ( ( ( ( ( (
= = =
( ( ( ( ( ( (


f
f
At the focal plane, all rays
converge to the z axis (x
out
= 0)
independent of input position.
Parallel rays at a different angle
focus at a different x
out
.
A lens followed by propagation by one focal length:
Assume all input
rays have u
in
= 0
For all rays,
x
out
= 0!
Looking from right to left, rays diverging from a point are made parallel.
f
f
f
f
And it maps input position
to angle:

Lenses can simultan-
eously map angle to
position and position
to angle.
From input to output, use:
1) A distance f
2) A lens of focal length f
3) Another distance f
1 1 0 1
0 1 1/ 1 0 1
1 1

0 1 1/ 1
0

/ 1/ 0
out in
out in
in
in
in in
in in
x x f f
f
x f f
f
x f f
x f f
u u
u
u
u
( ( ( ( (
=
( ( ( ( (

( ( (
=
( ( (

( ( (
= =
( ( (


out in
x u
out in
x u
f
So this arrangement maps
input angle to position:
independent of
input position
independent of
input angle
Spectrometers
f
f
Entrance
slit
Diffraction
grating
f
f
Camera
To best distinguish different wave-
lengths, a slit confines the beam to
the optic axis. A lens collimates the
beam, and a diffraction grating
disperses the colors. A second
lens focuses the beam to a
point that depends on its
beam input angle (i.e.,
the wavelength).
u
0

There are
many
types of
spectrom-
eters. But
most are
based on
this principle.
Lenses and Phase Delay
Equal phase
delays
Focus
f
f
Ordinarily phase isnt considered in geometrical optics, but its
worth computing the phase delay vs. x and y for a lens.
It turns out that all paths through a lens to its focus have the same
phase delay, and hence yield constructive interference there!
Lenses and
Phase Delay
( , ) ( 1) ( , )
lens
x y n k x y | A = A
2 2 2
1
( , ) ( 1) ( )
lens
x y n k R x y d |
(
A = +

neglecting phase delays
independent of x and y.
2 2
1
( , ) ( 1)( / 2 )( )
lens
x y n k R x y | A ~ +
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
1
1 ( ) /
2
x y
R x y R x y R R
R
+
= + ~
2 2 2
1
( , ) x y R x y d A =
( , ) x y A
d
First consider variation (the
x and y dependence) in the
path through the lens.
But:
Extra phase
delay due to
the glass
Focus
f
z
Lenses and Phase Delay
2 2 2
( , )
air
x y k x y z | = + +
2 2
( , ) ( / 2 )( )
air
x y k z x y | A ~ +
2 2
2 2 2
2
x y
x y z z
z
+
+ + ~ +
(x,y)
0
x,y
If z >> x, y:
2 2 2 2
1
( , ) ( , ) ( 1)( / 2 )( ) ( / 2 )( )
lens air
x y x y n k R x y k z x y | | A + A ~ + + +
= 0 if
1
1 1
( 1) n
z R
=
Now compute the total phase delay
in the air after the lens:
that is, if z = f !
So the extra phase delay is:
Recalling the
Lens Makers
Formula
Ray Matrix for a Curved Mirror
Like a lens, a curved mirror will focus a beam. Its focal length is R/2.
Note that a flat mirror has R = and hence an identity ray matrix.
1
( )
2 /
out s in s s
in in
x R
u u u u u u
u
= =
~
Consider a mirror with radius of curvature, R, with its optic axis
perpendicular to the mirror:
u
in

u
out

x
in
= x
out
R
z
u
1

u
1

u
s

1
/
in s s in
x R u u u u = ~
1 0
=
2/ 1
mirror
O
R
(
(

Two flat mirrors, the flat-flat

laser cavity, is difficult to align
and maintain aligned.
Two concave curved mirrors,
the usually stable laser cavity,
is generally easy to align and
maintain aligned.
Two convex mirrors, the
unstable laser cavity, is
impossible to align!
Mirror curvatures matter in lasers.
Laser Cavities
But an unstable cavity (or unstable resonator) can be useful!
In fact, it produces a large beam, useful for high-power lasers, which
must have large beams.
The mirror curvatures
determine the beam size,
which, for a stable resonator,
is small (100 m to 1 mm).
An unstable resonator can
have a very large beam. But
the gain must be high. And
the beam has a hole in it.
Unstable Resonators
Consecutive Lenses
2 1 1 2
1 0 1 0 1 0
= =
1/ 1 1/ 1 1/ 1/ 1
tot
O
f f f f
( ( (
( ( (


f
1
f
2

Consider two lenses right next to
each other (with no space in
between).
1 2
1/ =1/ +1/
tot
f f f
So two consecutive lenses act as one whose focal length is
computed by the resistive sum.
As a result, we define a measure of inverse lens focal length, the
diopter:
1 diopter = 1 m
-1

A system images an object when B = 0.
When B = 0, all rays from a
point x
in
arrive at a point x
out
,
independent of angle.
x
out
= A x
in
When B = 0, A is the magnification.
0
out in in
out in in in
x x Ax A
C x D C D u u u
( ( ( (
= =
( ( ( (
+

Lens
Image
Object
d
o
d
i

f
| |
/
1/ 1/ 1/
0
o i o i
o i o i
B d d d d f
d d d d f
= + =
+ =
if
1 1 0 1
0 1 1/ 1 0 1
1 1

1/ 1 / 0 1
1 / /

1/ 1 /
i o
o i
o
i o i o i
o
d d
O
f
d d
f d f
d f d d d d f
f d f
( ( (
=
( ( (

( (
=
( (


+
(
=
(


The Lens Law
From the object to the
image, we have:
1) A distance d
o
2) A lens of focal length f
3) A distance d
i
1 1 1
o i
d d f
+ =
This is the Lens Law.
Lens
Image
Object
d
o
d
i

f
Imaging
Magnification
1 1 1
o i
d d f
+ =
1 1
1 / 1
i i
o i
A d f d
d d
(
= = +
(

i
o
d
M
d
=
If the imaging condition,
is satisfied, then:
1 / 0
1/ 1 /
i
o
d f
O
f d f

(
=
(


1 1
1 / 1
o o
o i
D d f d
d d
(
= = +
(

1/
o
i
d
M
d
= =
0
1/ 1/
M
O
f M
(
=
(

So:
Lens
Image
Object
d
o
d
i

f
Angular
magnification
Negative-f lenses have virtual images, and positive-f lenses do
also if the object is less than one focal length away.
Object
f > 0
Virtual
image
Virtual
Images
f < 0
Virtual
image
Simply looking at a flat mirror yields a virtual image.
A virtual image occurs when the outgoing rays
from a point on the object never actually intersect
at a point but can be traced backwards to one.
Object infinitely
far away
The F-number, f / #, of a lens is the ratio of its focal length and its
diameter.
f / # = f / d
f
f
d
1

f
f
d
2

f / # = 1 f / # = 2
Large f-number lenses collect more light but are harder to engineer.
F-Number