Presented by: Sayed Qutub Ali Shah

What is Reservoir?
Reservoirs are the porous and permeable rocks that contain commercial deposits of hydrocarbons.
Porosity and permeability are the most important physical properties of these reservoirs, so we'll quickly discuss ways of describing these attributes, and how they may be modified by diagenetic changes.

Porosity
Porosity is the opening in a rock. Strictly speaking it is a ratio: porosity = Open space/total volume of the rock plus opening Often multiplied by 100 to be expressed as a percentage. symbol is the greek letter phi f

Porosity measurements
Can be measured using three techniques: (1) Well logs- one of the primary uses of well logs often map out subsurface trends of porous lithologies as a play strategy. Different types of logs can be used for porosity measurements depending on lithology (Sonic, Neutron, and Density) (2) Seismics- through change in acoustic impedence (v*r). density decreases with increasing porosity

(3) Direct measurments of cores- Generally involves filling pore space with gas, measuring the volume of the gas, and independently measuring the volume of the rock and porosity.

Porosity in reservoir rocks is normally between 10% and 20%, but some excellent reservoirs may have porosities of 30% or more. Accumulations in reservoirs with less than about 5% porosity are usually not commercial. Porosity can be divided into several types

Permeability
Permeability is a measure of the ability of fluids to pass through a porous medium. This is a more difficult variable to measure in reservoir rocks, but in many ways may be more important than porosity. Measuring permeability: Although permeability is one of the more important aspects of a reservoir, it is difficult to measure. Can be measured in drill holes with Drill Stem Tests (DST) or estimated with log response. Also can be measured directly on core samples with Permeameters.

(1) Drill stem tests The section of a drill hole is sealed off from the surface using inflatable rubber rings called Packers. The section can be in open hole or in perforated cased holes. The section can be at the bottom of the hole, requiring only one packer, or it can be in the upper hole, requiring two packers (this way is more likely to fail). Once the section of the hole is sealed, it is opened to atmospheric pressure, and fluid is allowed to flow into the pipe. The pressure and rate of flow are measured at the beginning and end of the tests, and samples of the fluid are recovered. All variables for permeability calculations are known. Important also to identify if oil, water, or gas is present in the formation (also remember mud logging). (2) Wire line logs- More details later, but in general, the technique relies on changes in log response as a result of infiltration of the drilling fluid. These are not quantitative measurements of permeability. (3) Permeameters- direct measurements of permeability Devices that hold samples of material to be measured. They can be rocks, or unconsolidated sediment. They all have the same mode of operation- they force fluid through the sample and the discharge is measured, form which permeability is calculated.

The combination of porosity and permeability to be reservoirs are sandstones and carbonates. only common rock types that normally have the favorable

Many porous rocks are useless as reservoirs, because their passageways or pore-throats are too small to allow petroleum to move through them. This can be due to fine grain size ( as in siltstones and shale ), or to poor sorting ( where fine and coarse grain sizes are intermixed and the finer particles clog the passageways )
The best reservoirs are coarseto medium-grained and show a high degree of sorting.

Relationship between porosity, permeability, and texture Texture is a description of the shape, size, sorting and fabric of sedimentary rocks. All of these variable influence porosity and permeability, although there are no clear correlations between the variables. There is little theory, and empirical evidence in equivocal. (1) Grain shape- porosity ( and possibly permeability) may decrease with sphericity and rounded grains. (2) Grain size- Porosity is theoretically independent of grain size, but there is a general empirical correlation between porosity and permeability. May be caused by increased cementation or because of poorer sorting. Permeability decreases with decreasing grain size because pore throats are smaller and the capillary pressure goes up. (3) Packing- Porosity (and permeability) will decrease with tighter packing. Most reservoirs are buried and altered, so packing is generally not an issue- the rocks are already packed. (4) Deposition process- no clear relationship, too many other variables (5) Grain orientation- controlled primarily by layering in the beds.

Reservoir Types
Reservoir rocks are dominantly sedimentary (sandstones and carbonates); however, highly fractured igneous and metamorphic rocks have been known to produce hydrocarbons, albeit on a much smaller scale. The three sedimentary rock types most frequently encountered in oil fields are shales, sandstones, and carbonates. Each of these rock types has a characteristic composition and texture that is a direct result of depositional environment and post-depositional (diagenetic) processes (i.e., cementation, etc.) Understanding reservoir rock properties and their associated characteristics is crucial in developing a prospect.

Sandstone Reservoirs: Description:

Composed of sand-sized particles.

Recall that sandstones may contain textural features indicative of the environment in which they were deposited: ripple marks (alluvial/fluvial), cross-bedding (alluvial/fluvial or eolian), gradedbedding (turbidity current)
Typically light beige to tan in color; can also be dark brown to rusty red

Properties:
Sandstone porosity is on the range of 10-30% Intergranular porosity is largely determined by sorting (primary porosity) Poorly indurated sandstones are referred to as fissile (easily disaggregated when scratched), whereas highly indurated sandstones can be very resistant to weathering and erosion Occurrence:

Are the second most abundant (about 37%) sedimentary rock type of the three (sandstones, shales,carbonates), the most common reservoir rock, and are the second highest producer (about 37%).

Sandstones
(1) Porosity in sandstones decreases with depth, like all other sediments. The rate at which it decreases depends on the type of sandstone (a) mature sands retaining porosity longer than immature sands. (b) poorly sorted sands (with clay minerals) will compact faster than well sorted sands. (2) Other factors effecting porosity gradients are the in situ P and T: (a) higher geothermal gradient cause faster diagenetic reactions, thus faster cementation (b) abnormal pressure gradients may preserve porosity by reducing compaction. (3) Hydrocarbons can preserve porosity- they prevent circulation of water, thereby stopping cementation.

Carbonate reservoir
Much of the generalities of sandstone reservoirs can also be applied to carbonate reservoirs. For carbonate reservoirs, their depositional environment can play a very big role in their quality. (1) Reefs: Reefs typically have very high porosities after deposition because they are generally cemented in place. Reefs are also subject to shallow burial diagenesis because they commonly are near sea level, and the movement up and down of sea level can cause cementation. Deeper burial of cementation also will occlude porosity. It is important for preservation of reefs that HC migrate into the pore spaces early in order to preserve the porosity.

Carbonate sands Carbonate sands have high initial porosity, but the lose the porosity quickly by compaction and cementation with burial. The earlier the cementation, the better the reservoir, because the sands don't lose porosity by compaction. Dolomite Dolomites often form good reservoirs. The common view is that it is because Mg is 13% smaller than Ca, so that during dolomitization, there is a total decrease in volume of the material by 13%, thereby generating 13% porosity.

Other types of reservoirs:

These type of reservoirs account for around 10% of the world's production. The remaining 90% is in sandstones and carbonates. Two major processes can create porosity and permeability of other types of rocks:

(1) dissolution This is a fairly typical way to generate reservoirs. Largely from dissolution of feldspars in granitescalled granite wash. This is what the Hugoton field produces from. (2) Fracturing Can generate porosity and permeability in otherwise tight rocks. Fractures commonly vertical, so deviated wells can be useful for drilling these types of reservoirs.

How can we identify reservoir?

IMPORTANT FINDINGS
Stratigraphic Architecture

Petro-physics

3-D Geophysics

Flow Modeling and Simulation

Characterization for reservoir

Once the barriers have been defined, the next tack is to construct maps of the reservoir that show as much detail as possible. Details include, porosity distribution (barriers) and permeability distributions. Information for this comes from a variety of sources: well logs, cores, seismics, production tests, DST's, outcrop information etc. It is all of this information that goes into the reserve calculations:

Depositional environments of reservoir

Clastic rock reservoirs

Most hydrocarbons accumulate in clastic rocks which also contain most of the reserves in the largest known reservoirs. Reservoirs are located mostly in sands that have undergone varying degrees of cementation; cemented sands are called sandstone. Less frequently, reservoirs may be found in deposits of coarser clastic rocks, such as gravel and conglomerates. A typical characteristic of silicoclastic reservoirs is the hydrocarbons migration velocity, from 1 to 1,000 km per million years, decidedly greater than in carbonate rocks. Most reservoirs are contained in structural traps.

Reservoirs in fluvial deposits (alluvial environments)

These are contained either in braided or in meander deposits, which result from the wandering of river beds. The former are coarser, especially at the low end of the sedimentary sequence, and become finer towards the top, with truncations caused by erosion of successive, laterally-migrating channels
Fluvial deposits are often texturally immature, especially close to the source where they may be connected with alluvial fans and therefore do not have high porosity levels. This is not the case, however, in channel deposits that constitute the best reservoirs and also have more favorable conditions for the formation of stratigraphic traps. Excellent reservoirs of this type are to be found in the Nubian Cretaceous.

Reservoirs in eolian deposits (desert environnements)

These consist primarily of medium or fine sands that sedimented after being carried by the wind, an exogenous agent mainly acting in zones with a desert climate, whether tropical (Sahara, Kalahari, Australian deserts) or in the mid-latitudes (Gobi), as well as in coastal areas (Atacama, in northern Chile).
Wind-carried dunes, which constitute classic sand seas. They are easily recognizable by the high angle crossbedding, and have good level of porosity due to the absence of argillaceous(silt & clay) matrix and the high degree of sorting (grains of the same size). The vastness of these sediments can give rise to large reservoirs, often sealed by black shales resulting from marine transgression, which provide a good cap; in this case, stratigraphic traps originate as a result of unconformity.

Reservoirs in lacustrine deposits

These are less widespread than the types described above and are linked to deposition of turbidite sediments at the margins of lakes, especially in deltas and deeper areas, and therefore have marked turbidite depositional characteristics. Reservoirs of this type are found in Utah. (Uinta Basin) and in China.

Reservoirs in delta deposits

These are typical of the transition between a continental environment (delta plain) and a marine environment (delta front). In the delta plain, sediments are the same as those of the alluvial type in their upstream portion, while in the downstream part they are often influenced by tidal motion. This can represent an ideal condition for the presence of reservoirs in sand or gravel deposits with the transition to finer prodelta deposits. Caps are represented by successive marine transgressions with clay deposits. Other reservoirs may form, due to the instability of the prodelta, accompanied by landslides, slips and flow of detrital material.

Reservoirs in coastline and shallow-sea deposits

These are formed by the action of the waves and tides, can extend for hundreds of kilometres interrupted only by river mouths or tide channels, and can be of a considerable thickness as a result of variations in the sea level. Also in this environment, the low stand favours the accumulation of sediments, while storm waves determine their shape and granulometric variations. Deposits with this origin are characterized by good porosity but their volumes are not comparable to delta deposits. The largest are located in western Siberia and in the central-Asiatic countries (Tajikistan), as well as in the North Sea, in Upper Jurassic-Cretaceous rocks.

Reservoirs in deep-sea deposits

These consist of sediments with considerable lateral and vertical extension that are largely the result of the sedimentation of turbidity currents generated through the action of subsea currents of clay and sand mud, which slide along the slopes of continental margins.

The sedimentary bodies settle at the bottom and, above all, at the base of the continental slope, giving rise to a fan that widens with an ever-decreasing dip towards the open sea, of a shape similar to that of deltas but with broader geometry.

sequence: the faster settling of coarse material (normally sand) determines a major concentration of coarser material at the lower part of the sequence; grain size decreases vertically and the finer, clay part is deposited in the upper portion (graded sequence). A turbidite succession will therefore have hydrocarbon accumulations concentrated in the coarser, porous permeable portions of each sequence, while the finer portions may represent individual caps. Porosity is never very high because of the presence of an argillaceous matrix in the sands, but volumes can be remarkable as a result of the extensions of the fans and the presence of numerous superposed pools separated by beds of clay.

Physical parameters of a reservoir rock

Various physical parameters characterize a reservoir. In addition to porosity and permeability, also temperature, pressure, density, and the phase that characterizes individual fluids, i.e. gaseous, liquid, or solid, come into play. The above-mentioned factors interact with one another: for example, a change in temperature or pressure can determine a change of phase. Reservoir rocks are usually full of water at the time of deposition and, subsequently, after their migration, the hydrocarbons fill up the pores and replace the water.

Temperature varies directly with depth. The geothermic gradient (on average, 1C every 30 m of depth) is influenced by geographic location and other local factors such as the possible presence of volcanic activity or the flow of underground waters. The minimum pressure of a reservoir is the hydrostatic one or, in other words, that of the water column, which is equal to 1 atm for every 10 m of depth. Another important physical characteristic of reservoirs is gas saturation. The oil in the subsurface always contains a certain percentage of dissolved gas, and this percentage may be greater than the amount of gas soluble in oil at the existing temperature and pressure.

Main reservoirs
As described above, reservoir rock is generally formed of porous and permeable sedimentary rock. The main reservoirs are thus contained either in clastic rocks, principally sands or sandstones, or in rocks of chemical origin, usually carbonate rocks such as limestones and dolomites. Many deposits contain reservoirs of both clastic and carbonate rocks interbedded in vertical stratigraphic succession. More than 60% of the worlds oil reserves are located in the Middle East, above all in Saudi Arabia, the country with the greatest oil reserves, while Russia has the greatest gas reserves.

Reservoirs in sindh are Goru Formation of lower middile cretaceous, pub sandstone of upper cretaceous and laki kirthar formation of the Eocen of age are the reserovir which are producing oil , gas and condenset at various fields. Other reservoirs of pakistan are Khewra sand stone of cambrian age, the tobra formation of permian, data formation of jurasic and the fractured shelf carbonet of eocen are producing oil, gas and condensate at various fileds like Dhulian, Dhurnal, Loti etc..

What is DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS?

An Environment: a distinctive kind of geographic setting characterized by a distinctive set of physical and/or chemical and/or biological conditions. Characteristics of Depositional Environment: Heres a list of what you can look for in a sediment rock or a sedimentary bed that might tell you something about depositional environment: grain size grain shape grain surface texture grain fabric sedimentary structures composition (siliciclastic; carbonate, evaporite, coal, chert) fossils (body fossils, trace fossils) stratification sequence sediment-body geometry/architecture

Lacustrine
Alluvial Fan

Delta Plain

Desert/Aeolian

Depositional Environment
Meandering River

Fluvial

Braided River

Deltaic

Prodelta

Delta Front

Continental Shelf

Glacial

Beach

Continental Slope and Ocean Floor

Marine

Carbonate Reefs and associated environments,

Tidal Flat

Marginal Marine

Barrier Island

Siliciclastic Shelves

Estuary

Depositonal control on reservoir

Depositional environment controls the characteristics of the reservoir in the following respects.

Maturity
Maturity is a function of sediment transport Textural maturity refers to: The degree of roundness of the grains The amount of sorting of the grain sizes Texturally mature sandstones have well-rounded and well-sorted grains, immature if not well rounded and well sorted. Texturally mature sand stones may exhibit good reservoir properties.

Angularity/Roundness
or roundness (antonym) is a measure of the distance of transportation

Increasing Roundness=increasing maturity

Sorting
Sorting is a measure of how similar grain sizes are within a sediment or rock and tells us about the relative strength of the current before it dropped (deposited) it cargo. In a current of water or air, the larger and denser grains fall faster than the smaller grains. That is, for the same density, size determines settling velocity.

The best reservoirs are coarse- to medium-grained and show a high degree of sorting.

Sorting

Well sorted

Poorly sorted

Increasing sorting=increasing maturity

FABRIC
The fabric of a sedimentary rock controls the rocks porosity and permeability and therefore its ability to hold and/or transmit fluids such as oil and water. Genetically, there are two principal varieties of oriented fabrics: primary (or depositional) and secondary (or deformational).

Packing
In addition to orientation, a factor known as packing contributes to a rocks fabric. Packing refers to the distribution of grains and intergranular spaces (either empty or filled with cement or fine-grained matrix) in a sedimentary rock. It is controlled by grain size and shape and by the degree of compaction of a sedimentary rock; in turn it determines the rocks bulk density

What is diagenesis?
Diagenesis is the term used for all of the changes that a sediment undergoes after deposition and before the transition to metamorphism. The multifarious processes that come under the term diagenesis are chemical, physical, and biological. They include compaction, deformation, dissolution, cementation, authigenesis, replacement, recrystallization, hydration, bacterial action, and development of concretions.

Importance of Diagensis
The study of diagenesis continues to be an active field of research in sedimentary geology, in part because the variety and complexity of the processes involved has left many uncertainties, but also because of the importance of diagenesis to petroleum geology inasmuch as diagenesis is a significant control on porosity and permeability of deeply buried sedimentary rocks, comprising the fine siliciclastic source beds, the coarser reservoir rocks, and the seals that cause those reservoir rocks to be petroleum reservoirs. Diagenesis is an essential aspect, although quite different in processes and effects, of mudrocks, sandstones, and carbonate rocks.

Effects of Diagenesis
The changes to reservoirs that occur following deposition are probably more important than any primary depositional texture, except perhaps sorting. Clearly diagenesis in sandstones differs from diagenesis is carbonates.

Fluids Affecting Diagenesis

Precipitation Evaporation Evapotranspiration

Water Table Infiltration Meteoric Water COMPACTIONAL WATER Petroleum Fluids

Meteoric Water Zone of abnormal pressure Isotherms

CH4,CO2,H2S Subsidence
(modified from from Galloway and Hobday, 1983)

When Does Diagenesis Occur?

Diagenesis normally occurs at a temperature below ~300oC. Some controlling factors of diagenesis are: composition, pressure, temperature, grain size, porosity/permeability, and the amount of fluid flow. After deposition has taken place, diagenesis can begin almost immediately.

Four main process in Diagenesis

1. Compaction

2. Cementation
3. Recrystallization

4. Replacement

Compaction
When the wieght of overlaying layers copmresess the sediments below the process is called compaction. As the grains of sediments are pressed closer & closer togather, there is a considerable reduction in pore space & volume. Fine grained sediments such as clay consolidated more effectively by compaction. compaction = volume loss (mechanical squeezing) and is accompanied by dewatering (= water loss) (by chemical or physical means)

Diagenesis: cementation
Cementation is the process in which chemical precipitates (in the form of new crystals) form in the pores of a sediment or rock, binding the grains together. Common cements: quartz, calcite and hematite Less Common: aragonite, gypsum, and dolomite. Pressure solution produces locally derived cement. Many cements consist of new minerals previously in solution in the fluid phase. Cementation reduces porosity by K. Simpson filling in the pore spaces between the Photomicrograph of a dolomite-cemented siltstone in grains. crossed and uncrossed polars. The cement between the grains can be easily seen
crossed polars uncrossed polars K. Simpson

Diagenesis: replacement
Although there are many replacement phases, dolomite, opal, quartz, and illite are some of the most important phases Replacement occurs when a newly formed mineral replaces a preexisting one in situ. Replacement may be: neomorphic: where the new grain is the same phase as the old grain, or is a polymorph of it (i.e. albitization; replacing a grain with a more Na-rich plagioclase grain). pseudomorphic: where the old grain is replaced with a new mineral but the relict crystal form is retained, allomorphic: an old phase is replaced with a new phase with a new crystal form

Recrystallization
Although sedimentary rocks are lithified by compaction, cementation or combination of both, some are consolidated chiefly by the ecrystallization of their constituents. Cemically formed rocks such as limestone,dolostone, salt & gypsum are consolidated by recrystallization.

Summary
Porous and permeable rock which has capability to store the fluids is called reservoir rock. the most common reservoir rock are sandstone and limestone but other rock could be reservoir which adopted secondary porosity and permeability. The reservoir can be characterized by stratigraphic architecture, petro-physical properties, and geophysical techniques. The reservoir rock are deposited in variety of depositional environment which determine the properties of reservoir. Maturity and grain Roundness enhance the reservoir properties. Diagenetic process such as cementation, compaction etc. reduce the porosity and ultimately permeability.

Sayed Qutub Ali Shah 2K10/GLG/104