Faouzi Ghrib, PhD, PEng.

Associate Professor University of Windsor Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Ontario, Canada,

REPRODUCED BY: MD RIYAZ ALI ROLLNO:11CE65RO1 STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING IITKGP

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION PHOTOGRAMMETRIC MEASUREMENT OF BEAM DEFLECTIONS THE EQUILLIBRIUM GAP FORMULATION DATA-DISCREPANCY BASED FORMULATION EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM VALIDATION CONCLUSION REFERENCES

presents two computational procedures to reconstruct the stiffness distribution and to detect damage in Euler-Bernoulli beams. The principle of the equilibrium gap along with a finite element discretization. The solution is obtained by minimizing a regularized functional using a Tikhonov Total Variation (TTV) scheme. The minimization of a data discrepancy functional between measured and model-based deflections. The optimal solution is obtained using a gradient based minimization algorithm and the adjoint method to calculate the Jacobian. Three beams with predefined damage scenarios were tested. In each case, the location and the damage levels were reconstructed with good accuracy.

Damage is usually related to the change in the internal material structure for ductile behaviour and/or the appearance of cracks in geomaterial. Damage accumulation is associated with the stiffness reduction of structural members, and generally expressed as a damage variable measuring the remaining stiffness to a reference value. Based on used response data, damage identification methods can be divided into two categories: dynamic or static based. While some dynamic based methods have had limited success, they faced serious challenging problems when applied to real structures. One way to classify static based damage identification methods is to consider whether the problem is formulated to locate and quantify localized damage in a form of discrete cracks, or to reconstruct a spatially distributed damage field.

Successful damage identification and stiffness recovery require efficient measurement techniques of the structural response. Traditional measurement techniques using Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDT) and strain gauges allow only localized measurements along the beam and therefore provide reduced amount of information. Recent progresses in image processing techniques and digital cameras permit a quasi-continuous deflection profile measurements of beams . This progress offers new possibilities in structural parameter identification, damage localization. In the present paper, we propose a methodology for damage identification in Euler-Bernoulli beams using static deflections measurement.

Photogrammetry is a technique of measuring objects (2D or 3D) from digital photographs. A continuous measurement can be obtained in the field of view. Edge-detection based close-range digital photogrammetry. A mollification based procedure is used to filter the measured data and reduce them to the finite element model nodes. The mollification technique is also used to approximate the evaluation of the rotations. The numerical convolution and the optimal selection of the mollifiers radius using cross-validation are used to filter the data and compute numerically the derivatives

. Within the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory, the rotation angle is the derivative of the deflection, The reconstruction of the derivative of the mollified data function is stable with respect to the noise existing in the measurements. The rotation at a given node xi ,

The elasticity modulus of the tested beam was identified to be 70.14 Mpa.

Restricted to the elasticity domain and in the absence of volumetric loading, the continuous format of the equilibrium equation is given by div((u))=0 Cauchy stres is a function of the displacement field gradient, E and .
Above equ as a set of discrete equations in the form of [.n]=0. The stress jump represent an equilibrium gap can also be given as injn=0. where n denotes the normal of an interface between the two sides of a section

The principle of equilibrium gap formulation can be applied specifically for beams where the equilibrium equations are : FL+ Fr= Plr ; ML+ Mr = Mlr

Within the context of FE formulation of Euler-Bernoulli beams, the force-displacement relations of an Euler-Bernoulli beam are given by

(v1,,1,v2, 2)are the nodal degrees of freedoms (vertical deflection, rotation angle), and (V1,M1,V2,M2) are the dual variables (shear, moment). The stiffness matrix of the element at the damaged state is denoted kd =(1-D)k0, D is a damage parameter, 0D 1 EI0(x) is reference stiffness can correspond to the stiffness of the undamaged beam.

 EI(x) is the actual stiffness of the cross-section at a position x damage variable, D(x)=1 For each pair of two adjacent elements, e and e+1 the following equilibrium equations can be written (1-De)(K03)e de,r + (1-De+1)(K01)e +1 de+1,l =(V2)l +(V1)r =Plr (1-De)(K04)e de,r + (1-De+1)(K02)e +1 de+1,l =(M2)l +(M1)r =Mlr Writing these equilibrium equations for each pair of adjacent elements,

 Finally, the problem of identifying the damage variable is written as: find =(1-D1 1-D2 .... 1-DNel)T such that G =R

where is the set associated to the damage variables corresponding to each element and R=(P1M1 .....PIMI....)T is the external forces ,nodal displacements(d1,d2,.....dn). In the inverse problem matrix G encapsulates both the model and the data. model errors and measurement errors lead to the ill-posedness of the inverse problem. A Tikhonov-Total Variation (TTV) regularization scheme is used to solve system

 The problem is treated in the least-square sense augmented with the TTV regularization leads to

where is the Tikhonov parameter , () regularization term The function () is the total variation (TV) functional of the vector Minimization of the TTV regularized functional yields an efficient scheme to solve the discrete inverse problem.

 for calculating () , the total variation (TV) of a function f(x) on the interval [0,1] In the one-dimensional case, the smooth form TV functional defines the total variance function as: The final smooth total variation functional

The discretized version of above equation is

 Within the presented framework, both statically determinate and indeterminate beams can be analyzed with the formulation as long as the applied load and displacements measurements are available

Using a measured deflection of a beam, um, the problem of reconstructing the stiffness of a beam can be formulated as an optimization problem using a misfit function between um and u() displacements:

where J(u,) is the data-discrepancy functional augmented with a TTV functional The constraint equations appearing in the minimization problem is the static finite element direct problem

 Evaluation of gradient of the cost functional, J. An adjoint formulation is used to compute the gradient vector of the cost functional to the unknown stiffness distribution parameters The constraint equations in residual form
R(,u()) = K()u-R = 0 the residual is an implicit function of the unknown internal variables The Lagrangian multipliers, , to convert the constrained problem to an unconstrained optimization. L(,u) = J(,u)-T R(,u)

additional equation

,adjoint equaton

(u-um)=

k()

The global stiffness matrix k is the classical assembly of the elements stiffness matrices ki. For the Euler-Bernoulli bending element

In conclusion, the adjoint method leads to an efficient computational method to calculate the gradient of the cost functional as it consists of two consecutive steps: 1) solve the adjoint equation for t , then insert t to calculate the gradient of the Lagrangian. 2) With the gradient calculated, any efficient gradient-based optimization technique can be used to find the optimal solution

An aluminum cantilever beam with pre-defined damage locations is tested and the associated inverse problems are solved for validation The beams cross-section is a HSS of 25.4 x 25.4mm and the thickness of the wall section plate is1.58mm. E=70.1GPa In all four cases, the deflection profile is obtained using a close range photogrammetric method. The reference frame used to measure the deformation was the image of the beam under its self-weight.

Test # 1: Step-wise damage detection

Equillibrium gap method

Data discrepancy method

performance of the adjoint based optimization algorithm

Test # 2: Single saw-cut damaged beam

Equillibrium gap method

Data discrepancy method

Test #3: Combination of discrete and step cuts damaged beam

Equillibrium gap method

Data discrepancy method

Two inverse problem based formulations are proposed to identify damage in Euler-Bernouilli beams. The static deflection profile of the beam is obtained from close range photogrammetric technique. We describe a technique to measure the displacement of beams based on an edge detection algorithm The first inverse problem formulation uses the equilibrium gap principle along with a finite element forward problem solver. An over-determinate algebraic system is obtained and solved in the least squares sense with a TTV regularization scheme. The second formulation is based on a data discrepancy expression of the measured and model based deflection. The minimization of the functional is obtained through an adjoint method and a TTV regularization.

Four tests were conducted on beams with different damage scenarios The two methodologies were validated and showed overall good performance within a laboratory conditions. In each test, the location and level of damage were identified with a good level of accuracy A validation on more complex systems, such as rehabilitated reinforced concrete beams is underway.
Two aspects need to be addressed in future work: (i) develop a reliable methodology for deflection measurements using digital image correlation, and (ii) include error uncertainty in the formulation of the inverse problems. These two enhancements will allow practical use of the proposed methodologies for the health monitoring of structures

REFERENCES
Claire, D., Hild, F., and Roux, S. (2004). A finite element formulation to identify damage fields: the equilibrium gap method. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, 61(2), 189-208. Aster, R.C., Borchers, B., and Thurber, C.H. (2005). Parameter estimation and inverse problems, Elsevier Academic Press, Burlington, MA, USA. Banan, M. R., Banan, M. R., and Hjelmstad, K. D. (1994). Parametric estimation of structures from static response: I. computational aspects. ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, 120(11), 3243-3258. Bicanic, N., and Chen, H.P. (1997). Damage identification in framed structures using natural frequencies. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, 40(23), 4451-4468.