Diodes

1
Chapter 1

Diodes
Outline of Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Basic Semiconductor Concepts
1.3 The pn Junction
1.4 Analysis of diode circuits
1.5 Applications of diode circuits
2
1.1 Introduction
The diode is the simplest and most fundamental
nonlinear circuit element.
Just like resistor, it has two terminals.
Unlike resistor, it has a nonlinear current-voltage
characteristics.
Its use in rectifiers is the most common application.
3
Physical Structure
4
The most important region, which is called pn junction, is
the boundary between n-type and p-type semiconductor.
Symbol and Characteristic for the
Ideal Diode
5
(a) diode circuit symbol; (b) iv characteristic; (c) equivalent circuit in the
reverse direction; (d) equivalent circuit in the forward direction.
Characteristics
Conducting in one direction and not in the other is
the I-V characteristic of the diode.
The arrowlike circuit symbol shows the direction of
conducting current.
Forward biasing voltage makes it turn on.
Reverse biasing voltage makes it turn off.
6
1.2 Basic Semiconductor Concepts
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Doped Semiconductor
Carriers movement
7
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Definition
A crystal of pure and regular lattice structure is
called intrinsic semiconductor.
Materials
Silicon---todays IC technology is based entirely on
silicon
Germanium---early used
Gallium arsenide---used for microwave circuits
8
Intrinsic Semiconductor(contd)
9
Two-dimensional representation
of the silicon crystal. The circles
represent the inner core of silicon
atoms, with +4 indicating its
positive charge of +4q, which is
neutralized by the charge of the
four valence electrons. Observe
how the covalent bonds are
formed by sharing of the valence
electrons. At 0 K, all bonds are
intact and no free electrons are
available for current conduction.
10
At room temperature,
some of the covalent
bonds are broken by
thermal ionization.
Each broken bond
gives rise to a free
electron and a hole,
both of which become
available for current
conduction.
Thermal ionization
Valence electron---each silicon atom has four valence
electrons
Covalent bond---two valence electrons from different two
silicon atoms form the covalent bond
Be intact at sufficiently low temperature
Be broken at room temperature
Free electron---produced by thermal ionization, move
freely in the lattice structure.
Hole---empty position in broken covalent bond,can be
filled by free electron, positive charge

11
Carriers
A free electron is negative charge and a hole is positive
charge. Both of them can move in the crystal structure.
They can conduct electric circuit.
12
Recombination
Some free electrons filling the holes results in
the disappearance of free electrons and holes.
Thermal equilibrium
At a certain temperature, the recombination
rate is equal to the ionization rate. So the
concentration of the carriers is able to be
calculated.
13
Carrier concentration in thermal equilibrium

At room temperature(T=300K)
carriers/cm
3

14
i
n p n = =
kT E
i
G
e BT n

=
3
2
10
10 5 . 1 ~
i
n
Important notes:
has a strong function of temperature. The
high the temperature is, the dramatically great the
carrier concentration is.
At room temperature only one of every billion
atoms is ionized.
Silicons conductivity is between that of
conductors and insulators. Actually the
characteristic of intrinsic silicon approaches to
insulators.

15
i
n
Doped Semiconductor
Doped semiconductors are materials in which
carriers of one kind predominate.
Only two types of doped semiconductors are
available.
Conductivity of doped semiconductor is much
greater than the one of intrinsic semiconductor.
The pn junction is formed by doped
semiconductor.
16
Doped Semiconductor(contd)
n type semiconductor
Concept
Doped silicon in which the majority of charge carriers are the
negatively charged electrons is called n type semiconductor.
Terminology
Donor---impurity provides free electrons, usually entirely
ionized.
Positive bound charge---impurity atom donating electron
gives rise to positive bound charge
carriers
Free electron---majority, generated mostly by ionized and slightly by
thermal ionization.
Hole---minority, only generated by thermal ionization.
17
18
A silicon crystal
doped by a
pentavalent
element. Each
dopant atom
donates a free
electron and is
thus called a
donor. The doped
semiconductor
becomes n type.
p type semiconductor
Concept
Doped silicon in which the majority of charge carriers are the
positively charged holes is called p type semiconductor.
Terminology
acceptor---impurity provides holes, usually entirely ionized.
negatively bound charge---impurity atom accepting hole give
rise to negative bound charge
carriers
Hole---majority, generated generated mostly by ionized and slightly
by thermal ionization.
Free electron---minority, only generated by thermal ionization.
19
20
A silicon crystal
doped with a
trivalent
impurity. Each
dopant atom
gives rise to a
hole, and the
semiconductor
becomes p type.
Carrier concentration for n type
a) Thermal equilibrium equation

b) Electric neutral equation

21
2
0 0 i n n
n p n =
D n n
N p n + =
0 0
Carrier concentration for p type
a) Thermal equilibrium equation

b) Electric neutral equation

22
2
0 0 i p p
n n p =
A p p
N n p + =
0 0
Because the majority is much great than the
minority, we can get the approximate equations
shown below:

for n type for p type

23
~
~
D
i
n
D no
N
n
p
N n
2
0

~
~
A
i
p
A p
N
n
n
N p
2
0
0
Conclusion
Majority carrier is only determined by the impurity, but
independent of temperature.
Minority carrier is strongly affected by temperature.
If the temperature is high enough, characteristics of
doped semiconductor will decline to the one of intrinsic
semiconductor.
24
Doping compensation

25
n type semiconductor is generated by
donor diffusion, then injecting
acceptor into the specific
area(assuming ) forms p
type semiconductor. The boundary
between n and p type semiconductor
is the pn junction. This is the basic
step for VLSI fabrication technology.

N
D

N
A

D A
N N >>
Carriers Movement
There are two mechanisms by which holes and free
electrons move through a silicon crystal.
Drift--- The carrier motion is generated by the electrical
field across a piece of silicon. This motion will produce drift
current.
Diffusion--- The carrier motion is generated by the
different concentration of carrier in a piece of silicon. The
diffused motion, usually carriers diffuse from high
concentration to low concentration, will give rise to
diffusion current.
26
Drift and Drift Current
Drift
Drift velocities

Drift current densities

27
=
=
E v
E v
n drift
p drift
n p
,
E qp J
E qn E qn J
p drift p
n n drift n

=
= =
) ( ) (
Where are the
constants called mobility of
holes and electrons respectively.
Total drift current density

Resistivity

28
E p n q J
p n drift
) =
) (
1
p n
p n q

=
Resistivities for doped semiconductor

* Resistivities are inversely proportional to the concentration
of doped impurities.
Temperature coefficient(TC)
TC for resistivity of doped semiconductor is
positive due to negative TC of mobility
29
=
+
=
p A
n D
p n
qN
qN
p n q
1
1
) (
1
For n type
For p type
Resistivity for intrinsic semiconductor

* Resistivity is inversely proportional to the carrier
concentration of intrinsic semiconductor.
Temperature coefficient(TC)
TC for resistivity of intrinsic semiconductor is
negative due to positive TC of .

30
) (
1
) (
1
p n i p n
qn p n q
+
=
+
=
i
n
Diffusion and Diffusion Current
diffusion
31
A bar of intrinsic silicon (a) in which the hole concentration profile
shown in (b) has been created along the x-axis by some unspecified
mechanism.
Diffusion and Diffusion Current

where are the diffusion constants or
diffusivities for hole and electron respectively.
* The diffusion current density is proportional to
the slope of the the concentration curve, or the
concentration gradient.
32
dx
x dn
qD J
dx
x dp
qD J
n n
p p
) (
) (
=
=
n p
D D ,
Einstein Relationship
Einstein relationship exists between the carrier
diffusivity and mobility:

Where V
T
is Thermal voltage.
At room temperature

33
q
kT
V
D
D
T
p
p
n
n
= = =

mv V
T
25 =
1.3 pn Junction
The pn junction under open-circuit condition
I-V characteristic of pn junction
Terminal characteristic of junction diode.
Physical operation of diode.
Junction capacitance
34
pn Junction Under Open-Circuit
Condition
Usually the pn junction is asymmetric, there are p
+
n
and pn
+
.
The superscript + denotes the region is more heavily
doped than the other region.

35
pn Junction Under Open-Circuit
Condition
36
Fig (a) shows the pn
junction with no applied
voltage (open-circuited
terminals).

Fig.(b) shows the
potential distribution
along an axis
perpendicular to the
junction.
Procedure of Forming pn Junction
The procedure of forming pn the dynamic equilibrium of
drift and diffusion movements for carriers in the silicon.
In detail, there are 4 steps:
a) Diffusion
b) Space charge region
c) Drift
d) Equilibrium
37
diffusion
Both the majority carriers diffuse across the
boundary between p-type and n-type
semiconductor.
The direction of diffusion current is from p
side to n side.

38
Space charge region
Majority carriers recombining with minority carriers
results in the disappearance of majority carriers.
Bound charges, which will no longer be neutralized by
majority carriers are uncovered.
There is a region close to the junction that is depleted of
majority carriers and contains uncovered bound charges.
This region is called carrier-depletion region or space
charge region.

39
Drift
Electric field is established across the space charge
region.
Direction of electronic field is from n side to p side.
It helps minority carriers drift through the junction. The
direction of drift current is from n side to p side.
It acts as a barrier for majority carriers to diffusion.
40
Equilibrium
Two opposite currents across the junction is equal in
magnitude.
No net current flows across the pn junction.
Equilibrium conduction is maintained by the barrier
voltage.
41
Junction Built-In Voltage
The Junction Built-In Voltage

It depends on doping concentration and temperature
Its TC is negative.
42
2
ln
i
D A
T o
n
N N
V V =
Width of the Depletion Region
Width of the Depletion Region:

Depletion region exists almost entirely on the slightly
doped side.
Width depends on the voltage across the junction.

43
o
D A
depo
V
N N q
W )
1 1
(
2
+ =
c
) )
1 1
(
2
V V
N N q
W
o
D A
dep
+ =
c
I-V Characteristics
44
The diode iv
relationship with
some scales
expanded and
others
compressed in
order to reveal
details
I-V Characteristic Curve
Terminal Characteristic of Junction Diodes
The Forward-Bias Region, determined by
The Reverse-Bias Region, determined by
The Breakdown Region, determined by

45
o v >
0 < < v V
ZK
ZK
V v <
The pn Junction Under Forward-
Bias Conditions
46
The pn junction
excited by a constant-
current source
supplying a current I in
the forward direction.
The depletion layer
narrows and the barrier
voltage decreases by V
volts, which appears as
an external voltage in
the forward direction.
Bias Conditions
47
Minority-carrier distribution in a forward-biased pn junction. It is assumed
that the p region is more heavily doped than the n region; N
A
>>N
D
.
Bias Conditions
Excess minority carrier concentration:

Exponential relationship
Small voltage incremental give rise to great incremental
of excess minority carrier concentration.

48
T
T
V
v
p p p
V
v
n n n
e n x n
e p x p
0
0
) (
) (
=
=
Bias Conditions
Distribution of excess minority concentration:

Where

are called excess-minority-carrier lifetime.
49
n
p
p
n
L
x x
p p p p p
L
x x
n n n no n
e n x n n x n
e p x p p x p
) (
0 0
) (
0
] ) ( [ ) (
] ) ( [ ) (
+ =
+ =

n n n
p p p
D L
D L
t
t
=
=
p n
t t ,
Bias Conditions
The total current can be obtained by the diffusion current
of majority carriers.

50
) 1 )( (
)
( ) (
(
) (
0 0
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
= =
T
p n
V
V
n
p n
p
n p
x x x x
nD pD
nD pD
e
L
n D
L
p D
Aq
dx
x dn
q
dx
x dp
q A
J J A
I I I

Bias Conditions
The saturation current is given by :

51
) (
) (
2
0 0
A n
n
D p
p
i
n
p n
p
n p
s
n L
D
n L
D
qAn
L
n D
L
p D
qA I
+ =
+ =
Bias Conditions
I-V characteristic equation:

Exponential relationship, nonlinear.
I
s
is called saturation current, strongly depends on
temperature.
or 2 in general
V
T
is thermal voltage.
52
) 1 =
T
nV
v
s
e I i
1 = n
1 = n
Bias Conditions
assuming V
1
at I
1
and V
2
at I
2
then:

* For a decade changes in current, the diode voltage drop
changes by 60mv (for n=1) or 120mv (for n=2).
53
1
2
1
2
1 2
lg 3 . 2 ln
I
I
nV
I
I
nV V V
T T
= =
Bias Conditions
Turn-on voltage
A conduction diode has approximately a constant voltage
drop across it. Its called turn-on voltage.

Diodes with different current rating will exhibit the turn-
on voltage at different currents.
Negative TC,

54
V V
V V
on D
on D
25 . 0
7 . 0
) (
) (
=
=
For silicon
For germanium
C mv TC

/ 2 =
The pn Junction Under Reverse-
Bias Conditions
55
The pn junction excited by a
constant-current source I in
the reverse direction.
To avoid breakdown, I is
kept smaller than I
S
.

Note that the depletion layer
widens and the barrier voltage
increases by V
R
volts, which
appears between the terminals
as a reverse voltage.
The pn Junction Under Reverse-
Bias Conditions
I-V characteristic equation:

Where I
s
is the saturation current, it is proportional to
n
i
2
which is a strong function of temperature.

56
s
I i =
) (
) (
2
0 0
A n
n
D p
p
i
n
p n
p
n p
s
n L
D
n L
D
qAn
L
n D
L
p D
qA I
+ =
+ =
Independent of voltage
The pn Junction In the Breakdown
Region
57
The pn junction excited by a reverse-current source I, where I > I
S
.
The junction breaks down, and a voltage V
Z
, with the polarity
indicated, develops across the junction.
The pn Junction In the Breakdown
Region
Supposing , the current source will move
holes from p to n through the external circuit.
The free electrons move through opposite
direction.
This result in the increase of barrier voltage and
decrease almost zero of diffusion current.
To achieved the equilibrium, a new mechanism
sets in to supply the charge carriers needed to
support the current I.
58
s
I I >>
Breakdown Mechanisms
Zener effect
Occurs in heavily doping semiconductor
Breakdown voltage is less than 5v.
Carriers generated by electric field---field ionization.
TC is negative.
Avalanche effect.
Occurs in slightly doping semiconductor
Breakdown voltage is more than 7v.
Carriers generated by collision.
TC is positive.
59
Breakdown Mechanisms
Remember:

pn junction breakdown is not a destructive process,
provided that the maximum specified power dissipation
is not exceeded.
60
Zener Diode
61
Circuit symbol
The diode iv characteristic
with the breakdown region
shown in some detail.
Junction Capacitance
Diffusion Capacitance
Charge stored in bulk region changes with the change of voltage
across pn junction gives rise to capacitive effect.
Small-signal diffusion capacitance
Depletion capacitance
Charge stored in depletion layer changes with the change of voltage
across pn junction gives rise to capacitive effect.
Small-signal depletion capacitance
62

According to the definition:

The charge stored in bulk region is obtained from below
equations:

63
Q
d
dV
dQ
C =
p p
p no n n
x
no n p
I
L p x p Aq
dx p x p Aq Q
n
t =
=
=
}
] ) ( [
] ) ( [
n n n
I Q t =
The expression for diffusion capacitance:
64
Forward-bias, linear relationship
Reverse-bias, almost inexistence
~
=
=
0
) (
) (
] [
Q
T
T
Q
T
T
V
V
s T d
I
V
I
V
e I
dV
d
C
T
t
t
t
Depletion Capacitance

According to the definition:

Actually this capacitance is similar to parallel plate
capacitance.

65
Q R
V V
R
j
dV
dQ
C
=
=
) 1 (
) )(
1 1
(
2
[
0
0
o
R
j
R
B A
dep
j
V
V
C
v V
N N q
A
W
A
C
+
=
+ +
=
c
c c

Depletion Capacitance
A more general formula for depletion capacitance is :

Where m is called grading coefficient.

If the concentration changes sharply,
Forward-bias condition,
Reverse-bias condition,
66
m
R
j
j
V
C
C
)
V
1 (
0
0
+
=
2
1
~
3
1
= m
2
1
= m
0
2
j j
C C ~
d j
C C <<
Junction Capacitance
Remember:

a) Diffusion and depletion capacitances are
incremental capacitances, only are applied under
the small-signal circuit condition.
b) They are not constants, they have relationship
with the voltage across the pn junction.
67
1.4 Analysis of Diode Circuit
Models
Mathematic model
Circuit model
Methods of analysis
Graphical analysis
Iterative analysis
Modeling analysis
68
The Diode Models
Mathematic Model

The circuit models are derived from approximating
the curve into piecewise-line.
69
~
=
s
nV
v
s
nV
v
s
I
e I
e I i
T
T
) 1 (
Forward biased
Reverse biased
The Diode Models
Circuit Model
a) Simplified diode model
b) The constant-voltage-drop model
c) Small-signal model
d) High-frequency model
e) Zener Diode Model

70
Simplified Diode Model
71
Piecewise-linear model of the diode forward characteristic and its
equivalent circuit representation.
The Constant-Voltage-Drop Model
72
The constant-voltage-drop model of the diode forward characteristics
and its equivalent-circuit representation.
Small-Signal Model
Symbol convention:
Lowercase symbol, uppercase subscript
stands for total instantaneous qualities.
Uppercase symbol, uppercase subscript
stands for dc component.
Lowercase symbol, lowercase subscript
stands for ac component or incremental signal
qualities.
Uppercase symbol, lowercase subscript
stands for the rms(root-mean-square) of ac.
73
) (t I
d
) (t i
d
D
I
) (t i
D
Small-Signal Model
74
Development of the diode small-signal model. Note that the numerical
values shown are for a diode with n = 2.
Small-Signal Model(contd)
Incremental resistance:

*The signal amplitude sufficiently small such that the
excursion at Q along the i-v curve is limited to a short,
almost linear segment.
75
DQ
T
d
I
V
r =
High-Frequency Model
High frequency model
76

r
d
r
s

c
j

Zener Diode Model
77
Z Z Z Z
r I V V + =
0
Method of Analysis
78
Load line

Diode
characteristic

Q is the
intersect point

Visualization
Method of Analysis
Iterative analysis
Refer to example 3.4
Model Analysis
Refer to example 3.6 and 3.7

79
1.5 The Application of Diode
Circuits
Rectifier circuits
Half-wave rectifier
Full-wave rectifier
Transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding
Bridge rectifier
The peak rectifier
Voltage regulator
Limiter
80
Half-Wave Rectifier
81
(a) Half-wave rectifier.
(b) Equivalent circuit of the half-wave rectifier with the diode replaced
with its battery-plus-resistance model.

Half-Wave Rectifier
82
(c) Transfer characteristic of the rectifier circuit.
(d) Input and output waveforms, assuming that

R r
D
<<
Full-Wave Rectifier
83
(a) circuit
(b) transfer characteristic assuming a constant-voltage-drop model for
the diodes
Full-Wave Rectifier
84
(c) input and output waveforms.
The Bridge Rectifier
85
(a) circuit
The Bridge Rectifier
86
(b) input and output waveforms
Peak Rectifier
87
Voltage and current
waveforms in the peak rectifier
circuit with .
The diode is assumed ideal.
T CR >>
Voltage Regulator
We define:
88
s
o
V
V
tion Lineregula
A
A
L
o
I
V
tion Loadregula
A
A
Limiter
89
Limiter
90
Applying a sine wave to a limiter can result in clipping off its two peaks.
Soft Limiting
91

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The pn Junction Under Forward-

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