Biological and Environmental Influences

Genetic Influences

Human genotype

22 pairs of autosomes 1 pair sex chromosomes 46,XY male 46,XX female

Sex Chromosomes

Y chromosome

SR-Y 54 genes with counterparts on X Determines differentiation of testes

Determines differentiation of ovaries Some role on sperm production X-chromosome inactivation Barr body Process of genomic imprinting = greater variability

X chromosome

Sex-Linked Traits

Carried partially/completely on one sex chromosome

Tend to be recessive Tend to be on X chromosome Red/green colorblindness Hemophilia

Examples

Holyandric genes carried on Y chromosome

Sex-Limited Traits

Carried on autosomes; expressed in presence of sex hormones Examples

Primary and secondary sex characteristics Lactation Male-pattern baldness

Chromosomal Variations

Turners Syndrome (45,X0) Klinefelters Syndrome (47,XXY) Supermale (47,XYY)

Sexual Differentiation

Sex hormones

Produced by ovaries, testes, adrenal glands Androgens (primarily testosterone) Estrogen Progesterone

Result is different prenatal environments

Stages in Human Prenatal Sexual Differentiation

Timing Conception Weeks 5-6 Female 46XX Primordial germ cells migrate to form gonadal ridge Mllerian ducts and Wollfian ducts form Ovaries differentiate from Mllerian ducts, begin secreting estrogen Male 46XY

Week 7
Weeks 8-12

Week 12

Primordial germ cells migrate to form gonadal ridge Mllerian ducts and Wollfian ducts form Mllerian ducts atrophy due to MIS, testes differentiate from Wollfian ducts,begin secreting testosterone Brain differentiation, clitoris Brain differentiation, penis and vagina form and scrotum form

Influences on Sexual Anatomy

Influences on Nervous System

Brain Structure

Third interstitial nucleus of anterior hypothalamus (INAH3) Sexually dimorphic nucleus of preoptic area of hypothalamus (SDN-POA) Corpus callosum

Gender-Role Behavior

Many studies conducted with children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

Variables most consistently correlated

Boys engage in less rough-and-tumble play Girls prefer boys as playmates, choose boy toys

Similar influences found for elevated maternal testosterone level Children with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome typically female

Gender Identity

Critical period hypothesis based on John/Joan case Studies of girls with CAH suggest gender identity less likely to be influenced than gender role behaviors Girls with CAIS typically have female gender identitygirls with PAIS more variable

Reiner (2004); Reiner & Gearhart (2004)

Genetic Males 5-16 years (N=16) Sex Reassignment Surgery (n=14) No Surgery (n=2)

Boys (n=6)

Girls (n=5)

Refusal (n=1)

Unclear (n=2)

Boys (n=2)

Sexual Orientation: Sex Hormones

Women with CAH less likely to be exclusively heterosexual (no effect on men) Women exposed to DES (androgenization effect) also less likely to be exclusively heterosexual (no effect on men) Same results not found among women with CAIS Androgenization hypothesis shows strongest support among women

Sexual Orientation: Genetic Influences

Family and twin studies show consistent effect for men Sibling concordance 7-10% for men, 3-4% for women Gender nonconformity seems to be established in early childhood Current studies consider marker on X chromosome to be related to male sexual orientation

Physiological Correlates of Prenatal Hormonal Exposure

Variable Findings Total ridge count on fingerprints Gay men and lesbians might show cross-sex patterns in total count and symmetry (that is, count on left and right hands) Ratio varies among heterosexuals and gay men and women Gay men, and especially lesbians, are more likely to be left-handed than heterosexuals Gay men have more older brothers than heterosexual men; effect not seen for lesbians Lesbian and bisexual women have lower CEOAE and SOAE than heterosexual women but higher than heterosexual men; no difference among heterosexual men and gay men

Ratios of index (2D) and ring fingers (4D)

Handedness

Birth order

Click-evoked otoacoustic emissions (CEOAE) and Spontaneous otoacoustic emissions (SOAE) of the inner ear