Geology for Engineers VAB1033

Geological Structures I

Structural Geology - Introduction

Structural Geology is the study of the

architecture of the earths crust, its deformational features and their mutual relations and origin. Structural Geology can be defined as a branch of geology concerned with the shapes, arrangements, and interrelationships of bedrock units and the forces that cause them.

Geologic Sructures - Introduction

Main Objective:

To recognise certain geologic structures, understand the forces that caused them, and thus determine the geologic history of an area.

Geologic Sructures - Introduction

Why an understanding and knowledge of Structural

Geology is important?

To understand earthquake for example, one must know about faults. Appreciating how major mountain belts and the continent have evolved calls for a comprehension of faulting and folding. Understanding plate-tectonic theory as a whole also requires a knowledge of structural geology In areas of active tectonics, the location of geologic structure is very important in selection of suitable sites for buildings, dams, highway, bridge, tunnels, nuclear power plants, etc. Understanding structural geology can help us more fully appreciate the problem of finding more of the earths natural resources, such as metal ores, petroleum & gas, rock aggregates, etc. The knowledge of structural geology is also very important in geohazards (landslide, earthqukae, tsunami, subsidence, erosions, etc) mitigation and control measures.
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Distribution of Earthquakes Epicenters around South East Asia

Alaskan Earthquake

P. Nias Earthquake, Indonesia

Geoforensic Investigation of the slope failure at the foundation site for Sg. Kelalong Dam site

Tunelling works require special skills in geologic structural mapping.

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Stress & Strain

Stress - a force per unit area at a particular point.
Strain - the change in size (volume) or shape, or both, while an object is undergoing stress.

The effects of compressional & tensional stress on silly putty. A) Compressing silly putty results in shortening either by folding or flattening, B) Pulling (tensional stress) silly putty causes stretching or extension; if pulled (strained) too fast, or chilled, the silly putty will break after first stretching.
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Stresses
Compressive Stress pushed together or squeezed from opposite directions. common along convergent plate boundaries; typically results in rocks being deformed by a shortening strain; Tensional Stress Forces pulling away from one another in opposite directions; results in a stretching or extensional strain Quite rare in the earth crust Shear Stress Due to movement parallel but in opposite directions along a fault or other boundary Results in a shear strain parallel to the direction of the stresses. Notable along transform plate boundaries and along other actively moving faults.
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Behaviour of Rocks to Stress & Strain

Rocks behave as elastic, ductile, or brittle materials depending on the

amount and rate of stress applied, the type of rock, and the temperature and pressure under which the rock is strained. Elastic if a deformed body recovers its original shape after the stress is
reduced or removed (e.g. rubber). Rocks can behave in an elastic way at very low stresses, however once the stress exceeds the elastic limit the rock will deform permanently.

Ductile a rock that behaves in a ductile or plastic manner will bend while under stress and does not return to its original shape after relaxation of the stress. Under high pressure & temperature (e.g. during regional metamorphism) rocks behave in a ductile manner. Ductile behaviour results in folding or bending or rock layers. Brittle a rock exhibiting brittle behaviour will break or fracture at stress higher that its elastic limit. Rock typically exhibit brittle behaviour at or near the earths surface where pressure & temperatures are low. Faults and joints are examples of structures that form by brittle behaviour of the crust.

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Behaviour of Rocks to Stress & Strain

Behaviour of rocks with increasing stress and strain. Elastic behaviour occurs along the straight line portions (blue) At stresses greater than the elastic limit (red points) the rock will either deform as a ductile material or break, as shown in the deformed rock cylinders.
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Brittle Deformation

Joints

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Brittle Deformation

Faults
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Ductile Deformation

Folds
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Measuring Attitude of Rocks

Dip - Angle of bed with

the horizontal Strike - Bearing (compass direction) of line of intersection between horizontal plane and the inclined bed. Dip Direction is the compass direction in which the angle of dip is measured.

Attitude of planar structures (bedding, faults, joints, foliations, etc.) is often depicted by the reading of strike and dip, or dip direction and dip.
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Map Symbols of Geological Structures

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Geologic Map

An example of simple geological map.

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Geologic Cross Section

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Geologic Cross-Section
For engineering purposes..

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Geologic Cross-Section
For engineering purposes..

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Folds
Folds are bends or wave-like features

in layered rocks. Formed by plastic (ductile) deformation under compressional stress. Folding took place when the rock was buried at depth where high confining pressure & temperature favour plastic behaviour.

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Basic Geometry of Folds

Terms

Anticline Syncline Limb Axial plane Hinge Lines/Fold axes

Syncline and Anticline

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Can you spot the syncline and anticline?

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Block Diagram of Folded Rocks

Folded Rock

Note: Plan view geological map Side view geologic cross sections

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Plunging Folds

Plunging Folds

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Geometry of Folds

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Structural Domes and Structural Basins

Structural Dome is a structure in which the beds dip away from a central point. In cross section, a dome resembles an anticline Structural Basin the beds dip towards a central point. In cross section its is comparable to a syncline

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Dome near Casper Wyoming. The ridges are sedimentary layers that are resistant to erosion. Beds dip away from the center of the dome (Photo by D.A. Rahm, WWU)

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Types of Folds
Folds occur in many varieties and sizes.

A number of fold classification schemes can

be applied to describe folds (refer to any Structural Geology text books). A simple types of folds are given in the following slides

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Folds Created by Movements of the Earths Crust

Open Folds
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Folds Created by Movements of the Earths Crust

Isoclinal Folds

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Folds Created by Movements of the Earths Crust

Overturned folds

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Folds Created by Movements of the Earths Crust

Overturned Folds

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Folds Created by Movements of the Earths Crust

Recumbent Folds
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More Complex Types of Folds

Refolded Folds

Crenulation Folds

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Refolded Folds
Hook Folds

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Disharmonic Folds

Chevron Folds
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The Importance of Folds

Folds are good

traps for oil & gas deposits.

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END OF PART I

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Fractures in Rocks
If a rock is brittle, or if the strain rate is too

great for deformation to be accomodated by plastic behaviour, the rock fractures. Types of rock fractures:

Joints Faults

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Types of Rock Fractures

Fractures - narrow planar openings in rock

Joints - Fractures w/ no movement parallel to

fracture surface. Often occur in sets Shear Zones - fractures along which a small amount (cms) of movement has occurred Faults - fractures along which large amounts (m - kms) of movement has occurred.

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Types of Faults
Terminology

Footwall Hanging Wall Strike and Dip

Normal Fault
Reverse Fault Strike Slip Fault

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Normal Faults

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Erosional remnant of a Major Thrust Fault.

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Faults and Stresses

Maximum principal stress (s1)

Normal faults - vertical Reverse faults - horizontal Faults form at 30 - 60 deg. from the maximum principal stress

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Other structures
Boudinage Pinch & Swell Veins

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Summary

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