Modern Philosophy: Rationalism

Rationalism
Basis of all knowledge should be on Reason, rather than Experience Empirical knowledge exists, but it is inferior (and should make way for) knowledge derrived by Reason necessary truths vs contingent facts

a priori > a posteriori distinction (prior to experience vs. after experience)

theoretical deduction > observational method

Distinct from Theology, but not altogether alien Most Rationalists were theists (or deists), but sought purely secular means for progressing epistemology and metaphysics (at least in the initial parts of their philosophy thereby God is introduced in their philosophical conclusions)

Ren Descartes
Father of Modern philosophy General skepticism vs. Cartesian skepticism

The Meditations

wax argument (What is an essence?) Cogito Ergo Sum (I think, therefore I am)

Dualism: two distinct substances (Mind & Body)

Hilary Putnam: brain in a vat thought experiment

Criticism

The dream argument isn't convincing enough

Does not follow our intuitions (see: Kant)

Meditation I.

Addresses the basic epistemological dilemma

Since individual illusions can occur in the world, it is therefore logically possible that all things that present themselves are illusions Since individual things can be doubted, it is therefore logically possible that all things can be doubted

The dream argument: am I always dreaming even if I am thinking that I am awake?

An evil demon (or evil genius) could be in control of all of my perceptions and be deceiving me about all of my experience

God would never do this, of course...

Meditation II.

The wax argument: what is the essence of the wax if it changes from solid to liquid? By what means can we grasp the essence of a thing and call it wax after it has completely changed its physical properties? Our knowledge of it cannot be based on the senses (it must therefore be due to reason, the intellect, etc.)

The true meaning of I see the wax (we do not truly see it with eyes) The same goes with many other things (people, tools, etc.)

Methodological doubt is in full practice (anxiety results from this crisis)

Descartes treats memory as fallacious (memories of nothing), he possesses no senses, and extension, body, motion, and figure are fictions In the end, because he can doubt, he must be a thing that is doubting

Therefore, he necessarily exists as a thinking thing

The

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Meditations

Brings God into the picture to justify the senses

Considers the foundations of logic Introduces and elaborates on Cartesian dualism

Video:

Descartes & The Matrix

Pascal's Wager

God exists, or He does not exist

Blaise Pascal

Ignoring the revelations of faith, there are equally chances of existence and nonexistence Reason dictates that neither is readily defensible You must inevitably wager and make a decision You are to make an assesment of pro's + con's By wagering that God exists, there is unlimited gain to be had in an afterlife and gain within life in terms of anticipating the afterlife but by wagering on his inexistence, we gain nothing, neither in life nor in an afterlife Purely in terms of the cost-benefit analysis, we ought to believe in God because it is a strictly more beneficial decision

Criticism

The cost of the true value on religious faith

The possible loss of truth (and the ego)

Baruch Spinoza
The Ethics

Substance (God/nature)

It is singular and indivisible)

its aspects and expressions:

Attributes Body (we participate in it) Thought (we participate in it) Infinite others (we do not participate) Modes The expressions/modifications of the above attributes e.g. Particular bodies/thoughts/etc Essentiality to all things No final causes (these are illusions)

Necessetarianism an even stronger form of determinism everything is absolutely necessary

There is no freedom of the will

Gottfried Leibniz
The Monadology

Monad

Originally used as a term for first being

simple substances, infinite in number They reflect all of their necessary connections There is a hierarchy: God is the ultimate monad

Best of all possible worlds argument If God exists, and there is evil in the world, then he must have made the world in such a way that it is the best of all possible worlds (we just can't see why) Criticized by Voltaire in Candid

Contemporary Ideas
Descartes mind/body problem

Pascal game theory

e.g. Prisoners dilemma

If A and B both confess the crime, each serves 2 years If A confesses but B denies crime, A is free, B serves 3 yr If A and B both deny the crime, both serve 1 year

Spinoza Einstein

Leibniz computers