INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES I : ABILITIES

Human beings exhibit individual differences in (a)cognitive, affective, and behavioural processes, and (b) ABILITIES and PERSONALITY. The study of individual differences in psychology involves the study of ABILITIES and PERSONALITY.
The extent of individual differences is smaller in (a) than in (b).

ABILITIES and PERSONALITY are separate but related aspects of the individual.

Abilities are what a person can do, Personality is everything that a person is, distinct from everyone else.

ABILITIES (INTELLIGENCE ) Abilities refer to more than one area of what a person can do such as intelligence, aptitudes, special abilities, and creativity. INTELLIGENCE is the ability studied in greatest detail by psychologists. Over the last 50 years, there has been a big change in the approach to intelligence.

Many definitions of intelligence have been proposed, indicating a variety of theories/ models, and several techniques of assessment. There have also been many controversies regarding the basis of intelligence (e.g. is it mainly genetic, or mainly the result of environment), and even the question of what intelligence tests measure.

Intelligence is A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience.. it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings catching on, making sense of things, or figuring out what to do. - Gottfredson (1997)

Issues that have been considered : o What is intelligence ? -- Structural as well as Process theories o How has it been assessed ? -- Mainly by adopting a psychometric approach. o Limitations in existing ability tests ? -- Specific problems, such as culturefairness, and problems related to age have been highlighted. o Alternative approaches to assessment ?

Structural views : What is intelligence ? What is it made up of ? A) Views proposing ONE basic ability (expressed in more than one form); B) Views proposing more than one ability or factor. Process-oriented views : What are the processes in the functioning of intelligence ? ----------------------------------------------------------------Some views combine the two approaches.

Assessment of Abilities Psychometric approach various tests that are standardized : standardization involves item selection, establishing validity and reliability, and creating norms. Performance tests (non-verbal, involving minimum language, and Verbal tests (involving language, paperand-pencil tests). Individual and Group tests.

Theories of Intelligence A) Views proposing one basic ability BINET Pioneer in the field, known for starting systematic intelligence testing. Intelligence consists of a set of general abilities, such as memory, attention, and judgment. These general abilities can be measured in terms of different operations. Developmental (age) changes must be kept in mind in making ability tests.

Proposed the concept of MENTAL AGE (M.A.) as the main indicator of intelligence. TERMAN : Basically agreed with Binet, Proposed the idea of General Intelligence the ability to do abstract thinking. Modified the Mental Age concept proposed that M.A. should be considered with reference to Chronological Age (C.A.).

STERN proposed the concept of Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.) : ratio between M.A. and C.A. M.A. IQ = ------ x 100 C.A.

B) Views proposing more than one ability or factor Notable among such views are those of Thorndike, Thurstone, Spearman, Cattell, and Guilford. Common feature: All of these views proposed more than one component or ability. These components or factors were proposed on the basis of a statisticalmathematical technique called FACTOR ANALYSIS.

1) SPEARMAN : Intelligence consists of : A general or g factor indicates an overall (general ability) component; A specific or s factor indicates a set of specific abilities or components that is expressed in a particular domain. Example: The g factor would involve REASONING (drawing logical inferences on the basis of given information).

The s factor some persons can reason better with words than with numbers. Verbal reasoning : Ocean : Lake : : Large is to ---- ? Numerical reasoning : 9 is to 3 as 36 is to ---- ? The g factor can be known through two kinds of functions Eduction of relations e.g. Relationship between Sparrow and Bird ? Eduction of correlates e.g. The husband of Queen is .?

Observation: Mental age does not increase beyond a certain age. Binet : 13 years Others: 16 to 18 years Ques: Then how does one calculate IQ for persons above the age of 18 years ? Wechsler suggested a solution Instead of IQ based on M.A./C.A., use a modified indicator, based on Mean and standard deviation of the distribution of test scores.

2) GUILFORD: Intellect should be understood in terms of THREE DIMENSIONS, each consisting of further factors or abilities the three faces of intellect : OPERATIONS - the nature of thinking involved; PRODUCTS what results from the Operations; CONTENTS the mode through which Operations are performed.

Operations refer to the nature of thinking involved in responding to problems/ test items. Two Operations deserve special mention Convergent production that which requires thinking in terms of correct answers/ solutions as in conventional IQ tests. Divergent production that which requires thinking in terms of several possible answers as in creative thinking.

Hand painting 1

Hand painting 2

Creative salads

Shopping cart chairs

Tables made of recycled material

Process-oriented views Robert STERNBERG Triarchic model : most cited contemporary model that proposes an information- processing view of ability. Intelligence is best understood in the form of THREE FUNCTIONS : Componential intelligence Experiential intelligence Contextual intelligence

These three aspects of intelligence work at the following levels : Meta-components- for higher-level cognition and decision-making; Performance components for execution of plans/ decisions made at the meta-component level ; Acquisition components for learning; Retention components for memory; Transfer components for carrying over, or applying information.

Other views of Ability Multiple intelligences GARDNER The multi-factor approach to ability may be acceptable, but there is also evidence for different KINDS of intelligence (not included even in the multi-factor approaches). SEVEN kinds of intelligence proposed 1) Verbal 5) Musical 2) Logical-mathematical 6) Interpersonal 3) Visual/ spatial 7) Intrapersonal 4) Bodily/ kinesthetic [ 8) Spiritual ??]

The Indian scenario : Traditional views allow for individual differences in ability, but do not contain an assessment component, other than the gurus evaluation based on direct observation or experience. Contemporary approach adopts the Western views (both unifactor and multifactor). Tests made by Terman and Wechsler have been adapted for Indian conditions.

Some tests that have been used : 1) Binet Kamat test 2) C.M. Bhatias battery of tests (based on Wechslers tests). 3) Versions of Ravens Progressive Matrices. Many psychologists have made their own intelligence tests, provided validity/ reliability information, and have made Indian norms.