Introduction

Matter exists in solid, liquid, and gaseous states

Fluids comprise of liquids and gases
Although different in many respects, liquids and
gases have a common characteristic in which they
differ from solids they are fluids lacking the
ability of solids to offer permanent resistance to a
deforming force
Solids can resist tensile, compressive, and shear
forces upto a certain limit
Fluids have no tensile strength, and can resist
compressive forces only when it is kept in a
container

Introduction
When subjected to shearing forces, fluids flow under
the action of such forces deforming continuously as
long as the force is applied
Fluids are unable to retain any unsupported shape; it
flows under its own weight and takes the shape of any
container in which they are contained
Deformation is caused by shearing forces which act
tangential to the surface on which they are applied
Fluids offer resistance to shearing forces as it flows,
shearing stresses are developed between adjacent fluid
layers, opposing the movement of one layer over the
other
Introduction
Fluids a substance which is capable of
flowing and which deforms continuously
under the action of shearing forces
Fluids have no definite shape of its own
Fluid at rest - there can be no shearing forces
acting on it, and therefore all forces in the
fluid must be perpendicular to the planes
upon which they act

Introduction
The same matter may exist in any one of the
three states
Solids, liquids, and gases exhibit different
characteristics on account of differences in their
molecular structure
Solids possess rigid and compact form
Liquids force of attraction between molecules is
sufficient enough to keep the liquid together in a
definite volume, which varies only slightly with
changes in temperature and pressure practically
incompressible

Introduction
Liquids form a free surface separating it from the
atmosphere or any other gas present
Gases Molecules have much greater freedom
of movement they fill the container in which
they are placed completely they are
compressible and have no definite volume
Gases even a slight change in temperature
significantly changes its volume and pressure
Vapour gas whose temperature and pressure
are such that it is very near to liquid state
Introduction
Solids strain is a function of applied stress,
provided that the elastic limit is not exceeded
Fluids rate of strain is proportional to the
applied stress
Solids strain is independent of the time over
which the force is applied and if the elastic limit is
not exceeded, the deformation disappears once
the force causing it is removed
Fluids As long as the force is applied, it
continues to flow and will not recover its original
form even when the force is removed
Ideal fluids vs real fluids
Ideal fluids have no viscosity and surface
tension and are incompressible - No resistance
is encountered as it flows - imaginary
Fluids having low viscosity, and surface
tension and which are practically
incompressible may be treated as ideal
Real fluids those that exist in nature
Fluid Mechanics
The branch of applied mechanics that is
concerned with the statics and dynamics of
liquids and gases (fluids) behaviour of fluids at
rest or in motion
Analysis of fluid behaviour is perfomed based on
the fundamental laws of applied mechanics
relating to the conservation of mass and energy
and the force-momentum equation, together
with other concepts and equations
Fluid Mechanics
Two major aspects pertaining to fluid mechanics
differ from solid mechanics
The nature and properties of fluids are very different
from those of solids
Instead of dealing with individual bodies or elements of
known mass, the behaviour of a continuous stream of
fluid without beginning or end is analysed
Also, it is extremely difficult to specify the precise
movement of a stream of fluid or that of individual
particles within it

Fluid Mechanics
Hence, theoretical analyses are carried out
assuming ideal, simplified conditions and
patterns of flow and the results obtained are
modified using appropriate coefficients and
factors determined experimentally
Continuum concept of a fluid
Although the properties of a fluid arise from
its molecular structure, engineering problems
are concerned with the bulk behaviour of
fluids
The number of molecules involved is
immense, and separation between them is is
normally negligible when compared to the
distances involved in the practical problem
being studied
Continuum concept of a fluid
Under these circumstances, the fluid is
considered as a continuum a hypothetical
continuous substance
The conditions at a point is considered to be the
average of a very large number of molecules
around the point within a distance which is large
enough compared to the mean intermolecular
distance (small in real terms)
Quantities such as velocity, pressure etc can be
considered to be constant at any point, ignoring
changes due to molecular motion
Continuum concept of a fluid
Variations in these quantities can be assumed
to be smooth, from point to point
Velocity Field
Eulerian and Lagrangian Frameworks
Shear stress in a moving fluid
Although there can be no shear stress in a fluid at
rest, shear stresses are developed when it is in
motion, if the particles of the fluid move relative
to each other so that they have different
velocities causing the original shape of the fluid
to be distorted

If the velocity of the fluid is the same at every
point, no shear stresses will be produced
(particles are at rest relative to each other)
Shear stress in a moving fluid
When flow occurs past a solid boundary, the
fluid in contact with the boundary adheres to
it and will have the same velocity as the
boundary

The velocity of the fluid in successive layers
parallel to the boundary will increase as the
distance from the boundary increases
y
Shear stress in a moving fluid
Shear stress in a moving fluid
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids
Fluids which obey Newtons Law of Viscosity
Newtonian Fluids (most common fluids)
Fluids which do not obey Newtons Law of Viscosity
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Plastic shear stress must reach a certain minimum value
before flow commences



Pseudo-plastic dynamic viscosity decreases as the rate of
shear increases (milk, colloidal solutions)
Dilatant - dynamic viscosity increases as the rate of shear
increases (quicksand)
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids
Properties of Fluids
Measures of fluid mass and weight
1. Mass density (specific mass) of a fluid =
Mass of the fluid per unit volume
Units slug/ft in the BG system and kg/m in the
SI system
Mass density of a gas is strongly influenced by
both temperature and pressure
Mass density of water at 4 deg C= 1000kg/cu.m



( )
3
3
Properties of Fluids
2. Specific weight (weight density) of a fluid =
weight of the fluid per unit volume
Units in the BG system lb/ ft and in the SI
system N/m

is the acceleration due to gravity
Specific weight of water at 4 deg C = 9810N/m

( )
3
3
g =
g
3
Properties of Fluids
3. Specific volume of a fluid = Volume of the
fluid per unit mass(reciprocal of mass denisty)
In some books, it is defined as the reciprocal
of specific weight
Properties of Fluids
4. Specific gravity (Relative density) (S) of a fluid is the
ratio of specific weight (or mass density) of a fluid to
the specific weight (or mass density) of a standard fluid
normally pure water at 4 deg C for liquids and
hydrogen or air at some specified temperature and
pressure for gases
It is a number independent of the system of units used
Specific gravity of pure water at standard temperature
= 1
Specific weight of a liquid = specific gravity of the liquid
x specific weight of water
Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
It is the property of a fluid due to which it offers
resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over the
other
Primarily due to cohesion and molecular momentum
exchange between adjacent fluid layers
Coefficient of viscosity or dynamic viscosity
SI system N.s/m or kg/m.s
In the metric absolute system, it is expressed in dyne.s/m
or g/cm.s also called poise
1N.s/m = 10poise

2
2
2
Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity

SI system sq.m/s
Metric system sq.cm/s (Stokes)
1sq.m/s = 10000stokes

Dynamic viscosity of both liquids and gases can be
considered to be independent of pressure over the
ranges of pressure normally encountered; however it
is affected by high pressures

u =
Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
Dynamic viscosity of both liquids and gases vary with
temperature
In gases, dynamic viscosity increases with increase in
temperature whereas in liquids it decreases with
increase in temperature



Kinematic viscosity of liquids and gases is a function
of temperature at a given pressure
( )
000221 . 0 , 03368 . 0 , 0179 . 0
,
1
1 1 0
0
2
1 1
0
= = =
+ +
=
B A poise Water
C in T
T B T A
T

Properties of Fluids
Vapour Pressure
All liquids possess a tendency to evaporate or vapourise
by continuous escape of molecules through the free
surface
If the liquid is confined in a closed vessel, the
accumulated vapour molecules (in the space above the
free surface) exerts a partial pressure on the liquid
surface vapour pressure of the liquid
Vapour pressure of a liquid increases with increase in
temperature
If the external absolute pressure on the liquid is reduced
such that it equals or becomes less than the vapour
pressure of the liquid, the liquid will boil at that
temperature
Properties of Fluids
Compressibility and Elasticity
Fluids possess elastic characteristics like elastic solids
can be compressed by application of an external
force and expand back to the original volume once
the external force is removed
Volumetric strain = Change in volume =
Original volume
Compressibility of a fluid is the reciprocal of bulk
modulus of elasticity
Bulk modulus of elasticity
( )
|
.
|

\
|
= =

o
o
dp
V
V
dp
K
V
V o

Properties of Fluids
Compressibility and Elasticity
SI system Unit of is N/m
Water 2.06 x 10 N/m
Air 1.03 x 10 N/m
(at normal temperature and pressure)
Bulk modulus of elasticity of a fluid is not a constant; it
increases with increase in pressure
In liquids, decreases with increase in temperature; in
gases, as temperature increases, pressure also increases
and hence increases

K
2
9
2
5
2
K
K
Properties of Fluids
Compressibility and Elasticity
In normal problems involving flow of liquids, the
effect of compressibility of the liquid is neglected
and the liquid is considered to be incompressible
In the case of gases, the effect of compressibility
cannot be ignored

Properties of Fluids
Surface Tension and Capillarity
A molecule within the body of a liquid is attracted equally
in all directions by other molecules surrounding it; but at
the surface between the liquid and the air above
(interface), the upward and downward attractive forces are
unbalanced
The liquid surface hence behaves as if it were an elastic
membrane under tension
Surface tension is measured as the force acting across the
unit length of a line drawn on the surface and acts in the
plane of the surface, normal to any line in the surface
It is the same at all points
o
Properties of Fluids
Surface Tension and Capillarity
Surface tension is constant at any given temperature at the
surface of separation of any two given substances
It decreases with increase in temperature
Cohesion enables a liquid to resist tensile stresses,
whereas adhesion enables it to stick to another body
Surface tension is due to cohesion between liquid particles
at the surface, whereas capillarity is due to both adhesion
and cohesion
The effect of surface tension is to reduce the surface area
of a free body of liquid to a minimum (drops of a liquid
tend to take a spherical shape)
Properties of Fluids
Surface Tension and Capillarity
Forces acting on a diametral plane through a spherical
drop of radius
Force due to internal pressure =
Force due to surface tension around the perimeter =
For equilibrium, these two forces must be equal
Hence,



r
2
r x p t
r x t o 2
r
p
o 2
=
In many problems, surface tension forces are
very small compared to other forces acting on
the fluid and is hence neglected
Properties of Fluids
Surface Tension and Capillarity
In the case of a spherical soap bubble, two surfaces are in
contact with air, one inside and the other outside the
bubble and each of these contributes the same tensile
force due to surface tension
The pressure force acting on the hemispherical section of
the soap bubble remains the same
Forces acting on a diametral plane through a spherical
drop of a soap bubble of radius
Force due to internal pressure =
Force due to surface tension around the perimeter =
For equilibrium, these two forces must be equal
Hence,


r
2
r x p t
r x t o 2 2
r
p
o 4
=
Properties of Fluids
Surface Tension and Capillarity
If the molecules of a liquid exhibit greater adhesion than
cohesion, it will wet a solid surface with which it is in
contact and viceversa
If a fine tube, open at both ends, is lowered vertically into
a liquid which wets the tube, the level of the liquid inside
the tube will rise at the point of contact above the level of
the free surface outside (the liquid surface inside will be
concave upwards and the angle of contact will be less than
90 degrees); if the liquid does not wet the tube, the level
of the liquid inside the tube will be lower than that of the
free surface outside (the liquid surface inside will be
concave downwards and the angle of contact will be
greater than 90 degrees)


Properties of Fluids
If the angle of contact
between the liquid
and the solid is and
the diameter of the
tube is , then,
Upward pull due to
surface tension =
component of surface
tension acting up x
perimeter of the tube
=


u
r d 2 =
r x t u o 2 cos
The only force opposing this upward pull is the weight of the vertical
column of water of height =

Equating these forces, we get,
h h x r x g
2
t
r r g
h

u o

u o cos 2 cos 2
= =
Properties of Fluids
Surface Tension and Capillarity
The angle of contact between glass and water is zero
The phenomenon of rise or fall of the liquid surface relative
to the surrounding general level of the liquid is called
capillarity
Capillary rise or capillary depression m or mm of the liquid
Smaller the radius of the tube, larger the capillary rise or
depression
Assumption meniscus of the curved liquid surface is a
section of a sphere (valid only for small tube diameters
radius < 2.5mm); liquids and the tube surfaces are clean
For tubes of diameter >6mm, capillary rise/depression is
insignificant
Equation of State Perfect Gas
The density of a gas is related to its absolute pressure and
absolute temperature by the equation of state, which for a
perfect gas can be written as


The absolute pressure is the pressure measured above absolute
zero (complete vacuum) = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
Absolute temperature in K (kelvin) = 273.15 + t in deg C
Units of - SI system N.m/kg/K = J/kg K = m /s K
The value of the gas constant depends on the gas

p
T
t cons gas the is R
T R m V p or T R p
tan
= =
R
2
2
Universal Gas Constant
The quantity is a constant at a given pressure and
temperature
By Avogadros hypothesis, all pure gases have the same
number of molecules per unit volume at the same
temperature and pressure
Hence is proportional to the molar mass (kg/kmol)
The quantity will be a constant for all perfect gases and is
called the Universal Gas Constant (8.314kJ/kmolK or 8314J/kg
K)
R

M
MR