Microorganism in fresh meat and poultry

What is Meat?

Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans are omnivorous , and have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times. The advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, pigs and cattle, and eventually their use in meat production on an industrial scale.

Meat is mainly composed of water and protein , and is usually eaten together with other food.
It is edible raw, but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways (e.g., curing or smoking). Unprocessed meat will spoil within hours or days.

Spoilage is caused by the practically unavoidable infection and subsequent decomposition of meat by bacteria and fungi, which are borne by the animal itself, by the people handling the meat, and by their implements.

Composition of Meat

Most animal muscle is roughly 75% water, 20% protein, and 5% fat and carbohydrates. Muscle is made up of muscle fibers which are long, thin, multinucleated cells bound together in bundles.

Each cell is packed with filaments made of two proteins: Actin and Myosin.

Meat as a Food Source

Complete protein source Excellent source of iron Fat, makes the product juicy, tender, and adds flavor Fat also reduces formulation costs

Chemical composition of typical adult mammalian muscle after rigor mortis

Rigor mortis is one of the recognizable signs of death, caused by chemical changes in the muscles after death, causing the limbs of the dead body to become stiff and difficult to move or manipulate. In humans, it starts after about three to four hours, reaches maximum stiffness after 12 hours.

Types of Meat
Meat can be broadly classified as "red" or "white" depending on the concentration of myoglobin in muscle fibre.

Red Meat

White Meat

When myoglobin is exposed to oxygen , reddish oxymyoglobin develops, making myoglobin-rich meat appear red. The redness of meat depends on species, animal age, and fibre type.

Nutrients zinc, iron, thiamine and riboflavin (in addition to vitamins B12 and B6) appear in much greater abundance in red meat.

Health Benefits and Dangers of Eating Red Meat Nutritional benefits from eating red meat: Red meat is high in iron and the heme iron in red meat is easily absorbed by the body which prevents several diseases like anemia. Red meat also supplies vitamin B12, which keeps nerve and red blood cells healthy, and zinc, which keeps the immune system working properly.

Red meat provides protein, which helps build bones and muscles. Beef is one of the most nutrient-rich foods.

Dangers of Eating Red Meat

Red meats are high in saturated fat, which raises blood Cholesterol. High levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL cholesterol increase the risk of heart disease (Atherosclerosis). Saturated fat has been linked to develop cancers of the colon and breast.

Meat that can be considered red meat most commonly comes from the flesh of big mammals like mutton and beef.

White meat or light meat is the contrast to red meat, and it is also referred to as light meat. White meat can also refer to lighter colored meat that comes from poultry.
It is commonly agreed that white meat consists of meats like rabbit and chicken.

White meat is best known as meat that is lean, especially in comparison with red meat. The big point about white meat is that its fat content is less in comparison with red meat.

The meat packing industry handles the slaughtering, processing, packaging, and distribution of animals such as cattle, pigs, sheep and other livestock.

The industry is primarily focused on producing meat for human consumption, but it also yields a variety of by-products including hides, feathers and dried blood

Animal slaughter

Slaughter is the killing of animals, usually that of domestic livestock for food. The animals most commonly slaughtered for food are cattle, Buffalo (for beef and veal), sheep, goats (for lamb and mutton), pigs (for pork), horses (for horse meat), and fowl, largely chickens, ducks and increasingly fish from the aquaculture industry (fish farming)

Meat Processing

Meat processing, preparation of meat for human consumption.

Packaging

Packaging is to surround or wrap meat products with suitable protective material. Packaging materials were in the old days simple natural materials, e.g. leaves, but nowadays exclusively manufactured materials such as paper or synthetic films.

Purpose of packaging

The basic purpose of packaging is to protect meat and meat products from undesirable impacts on quality including microbiological and physiochemical alterations: Contamination by dirt. Contamination by micro-organisms Contamination by parasites Contamination by toxic substances Influences affecting colour, smell and taste Loss or uptake of moisture

Sources of Microbial Contamination in Fresh Meat

Slaughter

facilities

Distribution

After packaging it transport to different locations.

The tissues of a live animal are protected against microbial infection by a combination of physical barriers and the activity of the immune system.

Microbial numbers detected in aseptically sampled tissues are usually less than 10 cfu/ Kg but this number could be more for infected animals.

The most heavily colonized areas of the animal that usually contaminates meat are the skin (fleece) and gastrointestinal tract.
The animal may carry a mixed microbial population of Micrococci, Staphylococci, Pseudomonads, Yasts and moulds as well as organisms derived from sources such as soil, faeces , water.

Microbial Growth in Meat

High water activity and abundant nutrients make meat an excellent medium to support microbial growth.

Sources of Microbial Contamination in Fresh Meat:

Animals environment Animal itself

Microbial contamination of meat continues during preparation:

Meat gets more microbial contamination during the processing when the head, feet, hides and excess fat and are separated from the bones and muscular tissues.
Skinning

spreads contamination from the hide to the freshly exposed surface of the meat carcass. Washing the animal prior to slaughter can reduce microbial numbers.

The viscera contain large numbers of microorganisms, including potential pathogens. Puncture or leakage from the anus or oesophagus during removal increases contamination. After dressing, carcasses are washed to remove surface microflora , although bactericidal washing treatments such as hot water, chlorinated water or dilute lactic acid have been shown to reduce the surface microflora.

After dressing the carcass is cooled to chill temperatures which may cause some reduction in numbers.

Spoilage of Meat

Aerobic storage of chilled meats, either unwrapped or covered with an oxygen permeable film, produces a high redox potential at the meat surface suitable for the growth of psychrotrophic aerobes. Non-fermentative gram-negative bacteria (rods) grow most rapidly under these conditions.

Gastrointestinal tract of food producing animals. Transferred to humans through production, handling and consumption of meat and meat products.
Occurrences of pathogenic bacteria in fresh red meat are between 1 and 10%, depending on many factors including the organism, geographical factors, farming and/or meat production practices.

Major component of spoilage microflora

Pseudomonas (P. fragi, P. lundensis and P. fluorescens), Acinetobacter and Psychrobacter

Minor component of spoilage microflora

Psychrotrophic Enterobacteriaceae (Serratia liquefaciens and Enterobacter agglomerans), lactic acid bacteria and the Gram-positive Brochothrix thermosphacta.

Characteristics of some Gram-negative Bacteira associated with meat

Vacuum and modified-atmosphere packing alter bacterial growth

Changes the meat microflora Accumulation of CO2 and the absence of oxygen restrict the growth of pseudomonas. Meat microflora is dominated by Grampositives, lactic acid bacteria(Lactobacillus).

Meat products are important sources of foodborne pathogens

Salmonella spp., 2. Campylobacter jejuni/coli, 3. Yersinia enterocolitica, 4. Verotoxigenic E. coli, 5. Yisteria monocytogenes. 6. Bacillus anthracis 7. Clostridium spp. and 8. Staphylococcus aureus
1.

Salmonella

Salmonella typhimurium is found in pigs, cattle and chickens. Salmonella enteritidis is found in broilers and eggproducing hens.

Salmonella is a gram-negative Temperature range 5-460C. Heat treatment of meat to around 700C will kill Salmonella. Salmonella is also capable of surviving in frozen meat or chilled meat .

They can grow in foods with a water activity down to 0.94 (8% salt) but can survive in products with low water activity. Salmonella is capable of multiplying both under aerobic and anaerobic conditions as well as in modified atmosphere with 20% CO2. Salmonella grows in foods with pH above 4 .

Sources of Salmonella contamination

When animals are infected with Salmonella, the organism will be shed with the faeces and spread to other animals, soil, water and crops. Animals may get infected with Salmonella through other animals or through contaminated feed, soil or water. Humans may get infected from other humans, directly from animals or the environment. Most plausible the majority of human cases are caused through contaminated foods (Poultry and pork meats are often contaminated than cattle)

Salmonellosis It is characterized by fever, diarrhea, abdominal pain and nausea. Symptoms are often mild and most infections are self limiting within a few days. This infection may be more serious with severe dehydration and even death. Salmonellosis has also been associated with chronic sequelae like arthritis. It could be fatal to child(0-4yrs old).

Campylobacter

Campylobacter jejuni is predominantly found in poultry, but can also be found in cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. Campylobacter coli is found in meat products, especially pork and it is also found in poultry.

Camplybacter is a gram-negative Temperature range 30-450C. They require a microaerobic atmosphere (5% oxygen and 10% carbon dioxide). low-level metabolic activity can be detected at 40C. They survive poorly in dry or acid conditions, and in sodium chloride above 2%. They are relatively sensitive to heat and so can readily be inactivated during cooking.

Sources of Campylobacter contamination

Campylobacter may be transferred to humans by direct contact with contaminated animals or animal carcasses or indirectly through the ingestion of contaminated food or drinking water.

Campylobacteriosis

The most common symptoms of human Campylobacteriosis include diarrhoea often bloody, abdominal pain, fever, headache and nausea. Usually infections are self-limiting and last a few days. Complications such as arthritis and neurological disorders occur occasionally.

Yersinia
Yersinia enterocolitica Yersinia pseudotuberculosis.
Psychrotrophic gram-negative, with a growth potential down to about 00C. Optimum temperature at 25370C and may grow up to about 420C. Killed by heating. Tolerance to pH, water activity and atmosphere comparable to other enterobacteriaceae.

Symptoms: Diarrhoea (may be bloody ). Abdominal pain ( infection at the last part of ileum) Joint inflammations responsible for arthritis. The majority of the cases are caused by Yersinia enterocolitica (few cases are due to Y. pseudotuberculosis)

Verotoxigenic Escherichia coli (VTEC)

Animal reservoir: Cows (main), sheep, goats and pig.

Grow at 80C -450C, (optimum at 370C). Survive months, even years, at 200C. Highly tolerant to acidic environments Survive for prolonged periods in acidic foods (yogurt and sausages). no unusual resistance to heat and pasteurization.

Diseases caused by VTEC infection

Symptoms: diarrhoea (bloody and painful).

10% of patients develop severe complications such as acute renal failure and Haemolytic anaemia .

Listeria

Listeria monocytogenes

Gram-positive Temperature range 0.4450C,(optimum at 370C) Multiply in refrigerated foods including meats. Killed by heat treatment (750C). Grow in meats with a water activity at 0.92 Survive in foods with lower water activities. Multiply in both under aerobic and anaerobic conditions (multiply in vacuum-packed meat and meat products). Grows within a wide pH range ( 4.6 and 9.4)

Gastrointestinal tract of Ruminants, poultry and pigs.

Raw and ready-to-eat meat can easily be contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes. often found in production rooms refrigerating rooms in slaughterhouses.

Listeriosis

Flu-like symptoms and diarrhea. Septicaemia and meningitis (Life threatening). Abortion or pre-mature birth (with septicemia). Gastroenteritis (incubation period 24hr).

Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus causes infections (as well as foodborne intoxications).

Gram-positive. Temperature range 7480C (370C). Heat liable. Most salt resistant (15% salt). Survive well in dry environments. Facultative anaerobes (grow faster in aerobic conditions) pH between 4 and 9. Poor competitors.

Staphylococcal food poisoning

Symptoms: Nausea and frequent vomiting (with in few hours). Stomach pains and diarrhoea are also common symptoms.

Clostridia
Clostridium perfringens Clostridium botulinum potential pathogens (often contaminants in fresh meat).

Strictly anaerobic bacteria. Spore-forming bacteria (a challenge in food preservation).

Clostridium perfringens Gram(+) Temperature 15 to 500C (optimum 35-400c). Grow very fast (7 min). Requires a high water activity Spores can survive against cooking for several hours

Clostridium botulinum

C. botulinum are a varied group of types, which are able to produce botulinum toxin. Gram (+), Psychrotrophic group: Temperature at 28300C (grow down at 3.30C) Requires high water activity (5% salt) pH 5.0. Mesophilic group:

Temperature at 35400C (grows down to10-120C) Moderate water activity (10% salt) pH 4.6.

Insufficient heating and inadequate refrigeration of foods will contribute to spore survival and growth and toxin production.
Consumption of such a food, without prior heating, have a high risk of poisoning with either perfringens-enterotoxin (alpha toxin), or botulinum toxin. Botulinum toxins are sensitive to heat treatment (75800C).

Clostridium perfringens alpha toxin Myonecrosis Haemolytic activity

Botulinum toxin Neurotoxin Symptoms of botulism 18 to 24 hours of toxin ingestion blurred vision, difficulty in swallowing and speaking, muscle weakness, nausea, and vomiting. 1/3 of the patients may die (respiratory or cardiac failure).