Intro IP

INTRODUCTION TO IP NETWORKS
Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000
TCP/IP
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP
IP LAYER PROTOCOLS
IP OVER LAN / MAN / WAN TCP/IP : TRANSPORT LAYER
TCP/IP : APPLICATIONS
IP NETWORK INTERCONNECTIONS NETWORK ADMINISTRATION SECURITY IP VERSION 6
TCP/IP
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Section 1 INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP
TCP/IP
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DEFINITIONS
Network architecture covers all the hardware and software resources for interchanging data between two remotely located data processing systems The OSI model (Open Systems Interconnection) is a 7-layer architecture for communication between two open systems Communication between layers is defined by the concept of service Communication between peer layers is defined by the concept of communication protocol The TCP/IP architecture incorporates only three functional layers
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FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE
Application Presentation Session Management of application connections
Transport Network
End-to-end management Network interconnection
Data link Physical
Physical bearer access method
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ENCAPSULATION
Layer (N+1)
(N+1) - PDU
(N)-PCI
(N) - SDU
Layer (N)
(N) - PDU
PDU : Protocol Data Unit SDU : Service Data Unit PCI : Protocol Control Information
Convention Layer 1 PDU : bit Layer 2 PDU : frame Layer 3 PDU : packet Layer 4 PDU : message
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CONNECTION-ORIENTED AND CONNECTIONLESS MODE
The connection-oriented mode is associated with the concept of reliable transfer
It involves three phases:

- SET-UP
- TRANSFER
- RELEASE Connectionless mode has only one phase: - TRANSFER
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RELIABLE TRANSFER
The concept of reliable transfer involves 3 functions: - SEQUENCING - ERROR RECOVERY - FLOW CONTROL
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CLIENT-SERVER MODEL
TCP/IP communication complies with the CLIENT-SERVER model
A machine (host) running a SERVER software package (process), responds to requests sent by a CLIENT
It is always the CLIENT that sends requests to the server
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ARCHITECTURES
OSI Architecture
Application Presentation Session Transport VT, FTAM, X400,CMIP ASN.1 X409 ISO 8326
Novell Architecture
TCP/IP Architecture Telnet FTP, NFS SMTP HTTP SNMP TCP UDP IP
Microsoft Architecture
NCP SAP
S.M.B. NetBios
NetBeui
TP0, ..., TP4 X.25 PLP Internet 8473
SPX
IPX FDDI DQDB MAN
Network
Link Physical
HDLC, LAP-B, FR, ATM, X21, V35, S,T Copper, FO, Microwave WAN
802.2 802.x
Ethernet Token Ring
LAN
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IP-RELATED ORGANIZATIONS
ISOC ("internet society") defines policy and development objectives IAB (Internet Activities Board) coordinates research and development activities IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) manages technical standards IRTF (Internet Research Task Force) responsible for network development NICs (Network Information Centre) In France : AFNIC (www.nic.fr) In United States : INTERNIC (www.internic.net)
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REQUESTS FOR COMMENTS
The RFCs published by the IETF are the equivalent of ITU recommendations RFCs have no version N, but the number is changed on each update. Everyone can contribute

Document references on protocols and services Technical publications on networks Since 1969 (ARPANET) : more than 2300 RFCs Freely available over the Internet (www.internic.net) Not all RFCs are equivalent to standards
State
Standard Draft standard Proposed Experimental Informational
Status
Required Recommended Elective Limited use Not recommended
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TCP/IP ARCHITECTURE
ping
Telnet SMTP DNS FTP X-Window

TCP IP
TFTP SNMP NNTP DHCP HTTP

UDP
NFS XDR RPC
IGP / EGP
ICMP
ARP HDLC, LAP-B X21, V35, S, T WAN

FDDI MAN
Ethernet Token Ring LAN

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Introduction : The essential
True or False
IP was created in the beginning of the 80 s, when the first PCs appeared. The OSI model has been defined in order to classify TCP/IP protocols. Both IP and X25 protocols allow to transmit data, but with different advantages
False False True False True False True
A reliable transfer must be transmitted by a reliable physical bearer.

Client/Server architecture is very often used in applications based on IP. IRTF et IETF are organizations depending on the DARPA All the protocols of TCP/IP architeture are defined in the RFCs.
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Section 2 IP LAYER PROTOCOLS
TCP/IP
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IP LAYER
IP is a protocol that can be routed in connectionless mode
Type : Best Effort Delivery

The IP layer incorporates different protocols
IP datagram ICMP datagrams Routing datagrams
IP needs a transport protocol IP is non-reliable

Routing not guaranteed No error checking No flow control Sequencing not guaranteed
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IP : MEDIATION LAYER
LAN Ethernet LAN Token Ring
WAN ppp
PSTN ISDN
WAN X.25, FR, ATM PSTN-ISDN
Internet
FDDI
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IP ADDRESSES (V4)
10010110 150 .
00001010 10 .
00010100 20 .
00011110 30
In IP V4, an address is coded on 32 bits

It is represented by the decimal value of each of the 4 octets, separated by a dot It consists of two fields: - Net ID field - Host ID field The field separator position is variable
It is identified using the concept of address class

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IP ADDRESSES : CLASSES
Net Id
Host Id
Class A : NET ID 1st octet, Host ID 3 octets

Net Id Host Id
Class B : NET ID 2 octets, Host ID 2 octets
Net Id
Host Id
Class C : NET ID 3 octets, Host ID 1 octet

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IP ADDRESSES : CLASSES
Nets : 128
Hosts : 16 777 214
Class A : NET ID 1st octet, Host ID 3 octets. 1st octet value from 1 to 126 Nets : 16 384 Hosts : 65 534
Class B : NET ID 2 octets, Host ID 2 octets. 2nd octet value from 128 to 191
Nets : 2 097 152
Hosts : 254
Class C : NET ID 3 octets, Host ID 1 octet. 1st octet value from 192 to 223
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IP ADDRESSES : FEATURES
Value 0 : represents ANY Host
150.10.0.0 represents any host on network 150.10 Value 1 : represents ALL Hosts 150.10.255.255 represents all hosts on network 150.10
127.X.X.X addresses are LOOPBACK addresses

These addresses are never sent over the network
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Any station can be reached at its UNICAST address Eg. : 150.10.20.30 Any station can be reached at its BROADCAST address Selected broadcast Eg. : 150.10.255.255
Restricted broadcast : 255.255.255.255

Any station can be reached at its MULTICAST address MULTICAST addresses are structured : 224.X.X.X They are class D addresses and represent ALL hosts in a group IP V6 does not support Broadcasts but introduces the concept of ANYCAST: Any (at least one) host in a group
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IP ADDRESSES : MASK
The function of routing is to reach any host in a network Eg. : 150.10.0.0 The HOST part of the UNICAST address must be masked Eg. : 150.10.20.30 must be converted to 150.10.0.0 A logical AND must be applied to the UNICAST address and the mask value Configuring a mask entails: Setting the NET part to 1 and the Host part to 0 It is therefore sufficient to know the class Eg. : for network 150.10, class B, the mask will be:
255.255.0.0
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IP ADDRESSES : MASK
10010110 150 AND 11111111 .
00001010 10 11111111 .
00010100 20 00000000 .
00011110 30 00000000
255
10010110
255
00001010
00000000
00000000
150
10
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IP network 192.1.1.0
192.1.1.1 192.1.1.2 192.1.1.3
Requirements Two stations separated by router: Different network Ns Two stations connected with no router: Same network Ns
On same network: Different host Ns

192.1.1.17 Router 128.15.1.1
An IP machine must know:

- its IP address
128.15.1.13 128.15.187.1
- its subnetwork mask - at least one IP router address
IP network 128.15.0.0
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SENDING THE IP DATAGRAM
Logical network N1
Logical network N2
Packet ready to send C:\netstat -r network address 0.0.0.0 127.0.0.0 150.10.0.0 150.10.20.30 255.255.255.255 150.10.255.255 224.0.0.0 network mask 0.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 255.255.0.0 255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 224.0.0.0 Gateway addr. 150.10.20.31 127.0.0.1 150.10.20.30 127.0.0.1 150.10.20.30 150.10.20.30 150.10.20.30
Routing table
Interface 150.10.20.30 127.0.0.1 150.10.20.30 127.0.0.1 150.10.20.30 150.10.20.30 150.10.20.30

TCP/IP
metric 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
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SENDING THE IP DATAGRAM
Logical network N1
Logical network N2
Packet ready to send
Routing table
LAN
Interface
ARP cache
No Entry
ARP cache
08 20 02 12 63 48
150.10.20.30
MAC frame ARP request

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ADDRESSING BY SUBNETWORK
Network 2 160.10.0.0 Network 3 170.10.0.0
Network 1
150.10.0.0
S/Network 3
S/Network 1
S/Network 2
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ADDRESSING BY SUBNETWORK Example: Class B address 150.10.0.0 can be subnetted using one of the masks below, depending on the number of subnetworks required
N of bits 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 etc.
Mask 255.255.192.0 255.255.224.0 255.255.240.0 255.255.248.0 255.255.252.0 255.255.254.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.128
N of SNs 2 6 14 30 62 126 254 510

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ADDRESSING BY SUBNETWORK
Network 2
160.10.0.0
Network 1 150.10.0.0 Network 3 170.10.0.0
S/Network 1 160.10.64.0 S/Network 2
160.10.128.0
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PRIVATE / PUBLIC ADDRESSING
RFC 1918
The following network numbers are not routed on the Internet
Class A 10.0.0.0
Class B
172.16.0.0 to 172.31.0.0
Class C
192.168.0 to 192.168.255
Natural segregation of private traffic from Internet traffic Requires the presence of an address translator Network Address Translator (Router function) The NAT does not replace the FireWall and/or Proxy Server
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ADDRESS TRANSLATION
Firewall
Internet
Translator
ISP
@priv1,150.10.20.30 @pubA,194.10.212.47
@priv2,150.10.20.31
@priv3,150.10.20.32
@pubA, 194.10.212.49
@pubA, 194.10.212.49
Dynamic management of a mapping table translating private/public IP @
Translator location In the Firewall In the router Types of translation N private @ to 1 public @ N private @ to M public @ 1 private @ to 1 public @
Example : N to M
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IP: DATAGRAM FORMATS

0 VERSION 7 LENGTH SERVICE TYPE TOTAL LENGTH IDENTIFICATION DF MF FRAGMENT OFFSET TIME TO LIVE PROTOCOL CHECKSUM SOURCE IP ADDRESS DESTINATION IP ADDRESS OPTIONS + PADDING 15
Frame header
IP packet
Physical frame
CRC
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ICMP : INTERNET CONTROL MESSAGE PROTOCOL
ICMP packet
Network 1
Network 2
Network 3
IP packet
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ICMP: PACKET FORMAT
15
TYPE CHECKSUM
CODE
Frame header
IP header
Physical frame IP datagram
DATA
ICMP packet
CRC
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ICMP: PING UTILITY
Remote system activity test IP network transfer time

IP ICMP ECHO REQUEST 160.10.20.30
Ping 150.10.20.30
Network 1
Network 2
Network 3
IP
ICMP
ECHO REPLY
Note: a ping in itself checks IP layer activity only, and not the network board
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ICMP REDIRECT
Network 3 Network 2
Server
2
R1 3
R2 5
Default gateway:
R1
Client
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ICMP : TRACEROUTE UTILITY
Traceroute is a software tool for identifying nodes crossed by an IP datagram sent to a remote machine. Traceroute is based on the use of "TTL exceeded" ICMP messages.
ICMP TTL Exceeded
B
TTL=1
R1
TTL=2
R2
TTL= 3
R3
...
Rn
TTL= n
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DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL
Dynamic configuration of IP machine addresses (clients)

(DHCP is carried by IP broadcast in BOOTP packets to UDP)
DHCP client
DHCP client
I want an individual IP address
DHCP client
Here is your IP address X.X.X.X
DHCP server
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INITIALIZATION
DHCP DISCOVER
Source Address: 0.0.0.0 Dest. Address: 255.255.255.255
DHCP client
DHCP server
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SERVER SELECTION
DHCP OFFER
Source Address: 150.10.20.30 Dest. Address: 255.255.255.255 IP Address: 150.10.20.31 Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0 Server Identifier: 150.10.20.30 Lease Length: 48 Hours
DHCP client
150.10.20.30
DHCP server
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SERVER CHOICE / REQUEST
DHCP REQUEST
Source Address: 0.0.0.0 Dest. Address: 255.255.255.255 Req IP Address: 150.10.20.31 Server Identifier: 150.10.20.30 Requested Parameters........
150.10.20.30
DHCP client
DHCP server
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ATTACHMENT
DHCP ACK
Source Address: 150.10.20.30 Dest. Address: 255.255.255.255 IP Address: 150.10.20.31 Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0 Server Identifier: 150.10.20.30 Lease Length: 48 Hours Default Gateway: 150.10.20.35 Other Requested Parameters....
150.10.20.30
DHCP client
DHCP server
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RENEWAL
DHCP REQUEST
150.10.20.30
DHCP client
150.10.20.31
DHCP server
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REATTACHMENT
DHCP REQUEST
DHCP server
DHCP client 150.10.20.31
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EXTENDED INTERSECTION
Extended
Extended
DHCP server 1
150.10.20.1 to 150.10.20.100
150.10.20.75 to 150.10.20.175
DHCP server 2
The DHCP client leases @IP 150.10.20.85 from DHCP server 1
ERROR!! Duplicated address
The DHCP client leases @IP 150.10.20.85 from DHCP server 2

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IP Layer : The essential
True or False
IP is named this way because it can interconnect any type of networks. An IP characteristic is as follow : Best Effort Delivery ; So, it s a protocol ideal for voice transmission. A broadcast packet never goes through routers. The mask is used for IP packets routing. A router has several IP addresses, one per each connected network. ICMP goal is to allow IP packets to go correctly to the destination. An IP host can not work correctly if DHCP is not managed.
True False
False True True False False
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Section 3 IP over LAN / MAN / WAN
TCP/IP
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IP OVER ALL NETWORKS
IP
LAN MAN Ethernet Token Ring FDDI DQDB Transparent
WAN Virtual circuit X.25, FR, ATM
LL, PSTN, ISDN
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IP OVER ETHERNET / 802.3
Encapsulation - IP/Ethernet DIX V2 - (RFC 894)

Destination
48 bits
Source
48 bits
Type
16 bits
IP Header
Data
0x0800
IP datagram
Encapsulation - IP/IEEE 802.2/IEEE 802.3 - (RFC 1042)
Destination
48 bits
Source
48 bits
Data length
16 bits
DSAP
8 bits
SSAP
8 bits
Ctrl
8 bits
IP header
Data
IP datagram
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ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL (ARP)
A B
Router
Eth(B) = 080026235577 ARP Reply
ARP Request
Mac Broadcast
IP(A) = 150.10.20.30 IP(B) = 150.10.20.31 Eth(A) = 00 10 7B 38 52 EC Eth(B) = ?
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PROXY ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL (ARP)
A B
Router
Eth(Router) 00 00 0C 07 AC 01 ARP Reply
ARP Request Mac Broadcast IP(A) = 150.10.20.30 IP(B) = 160.10.20.31 Eth(A) = 00 10 7B 38 52 EC Eth(B) = ?
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POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL
PPP is a layer 2 protocol (HDLC type) Usable on transparent circuit with synchronous or asynchronous transmision Basic functionalities Link configuration and link option negotiation Protocol multiplexing by encapsulation and identification Link quality testing and error detection Authentication Header compression Choice of CRC Incorporates sub-protocols LCP (Link Control Protocol) IPCP (IP Control Protocol) NCP: Network Control Protocol
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PPP AUTHENTICATION
PAP Password Authentication Protocol Plain text password CHAP Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol
Challenge (random) Challenge (random) Secret password
Secret password
MD 5
MD 5
PPP client
Reply
rcvd
OK or OK
= calc
TCP/IP
PPP server
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IP OVER MULTIPOINT WAN : IP OVER X.25
LAN 1
@X121 R1
@X121 R3
LAN 3
@X121 R2
X.25 network Routing table
LAN 2 Address table

@IP R1 Wan --> @X121 R1 @IP R2 Wan --> @X121 R2
LAN1 --> @IP R1 Wan LAN2 --> @IP R2 Wan
PLP X.25 HDLC X.25
IP 802.2 ARP table

@IP --> @MAC ...
802.3/5
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IP OVER MULTIPOINT WAN : IP OVER FR
LAN 1
DLCI R1
DLCI R3
LAN 3 FR network
DLCI R2
Routing table LAN 2 Address table

@IP R1 Wan --> DLCI R1 @IP R2 Wan --> DLCI R2 LAN1 --> @IP R1 Wan LAN2 --> @IP R2 Wan
IP Frame Relay 802.2 ARP table

@IP --> @MAC ...
802.3/5
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IP OVER MULTIPOINT WAN : IP OVER ATM
LAN 1
VPI/VCI R1
VPI/VCI R3
LAN 3 ATM network

VPI/VCI R2
Routing table LAN 2 IP Address table

@IP R1 Wan --> VPI/VCI R1 @IP R2 Wan --> VPI/VCI R2
LAN1 --> @IP R1 Wan LAN2 --> @IP R2 Wan
802.2 AAL/ATM
ARP table
@IP --> @MAC ...
802.3/5
Frame Relay
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IP bearers : The essential
True or False
IP packets are segmented into packets of 1500 bytes for delivery to the lower layer. ARP allows to find an IP host by knowing the MAC address. PPP is a protocol at the same layer as Ethernet
False False True True True True
2 LANs may be connected through the PSTN using PPP.

2 PCs can be connected together by serial link, in order to make an IP network. This local network can be connected to the Internet, by linking one of them by modem. As IP can be placed above any type of physical network, it can be implemented in the mobile networks. An IP host may be a router, by only adding specific software.
TCP/IP
True True
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Section 4 TCP/IP : TRANSPORT LAYER
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APPLICATION-ORIENTED ADDRESSING
Appli X Client
Appli Y Server
Appli Z Server
Appli X Server
Appli Y Client
Station A
Station B
TCP - UDP IP
Source port-Destination port
TCP - UDP
IP
Physical network : layers 1 and 2

Port number: Communication local identification Socket: Association of IP address and port number Communication: Association of Server and Client sockets, transport type (TCP / UDP)
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WELL KNOWN PORTS Services file

Number 20/tcp 21/tcp 23/tcp 25/tcp 53/udp 67/udp 68/udp 69/udp 79/tcp 80/tcp 88/udp 109/tcp 110/tcp 111/udp 161/udp 162/udp 512/tcp 513/tcp 520/udp
Protocol
File Transfer Protocol [Default Data] File Transfer Protocol [Control] Telnet Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Domain Name Server Bootstrap Protocol Server Bootstrap Protocol Client Trivial File Transfer Protocol Finger World Wide Web HTTP Kerberos Post Office Protocol - Version 2 Post Office Protocol - Version 3 SUN Remote Procedure Call SNMP SNMP TRAP Remote Process Execution Remote Login RIP
Keyword ftp-data ftp telnet smtp domain bootps bootpc tftp finger www-http kerberos pop2 pop3 sunrpc snmp snmptrap exec login router
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TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL
Connection-oriented mode 3 Phases : Set-up - Transfer - Release Reliable transfer mode Fragmentation (octet stream) Guaranteed sequencing Error recovery (timer protection) Window flow control "Forced delivery" option PSH flag "Urgent data" option URG flag
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TCP: CONNECTION SET-UP
TCP client A
<SYN> Snd SEQ N : 3256 <ACK> Snd SEQ N : 3257 Ack SEQ N : 2651
TCP server B
<ACK> <SYN> Snd SEQ N 2650 Ack SEQ N 3257
IP network
IP
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TCP: DATA TRANSFER
Client Appli
TCP
SYN 3256
IP network
TCP
Server Appli
S e t u p T r a n s f e r
ACK 3257, SYN 2650 ACK 2651 PSH 3257, ACK 2651, lg=100
ACK 3357, PSH 2651, lg=500 ACK 3151 ACK 3357, PSH 3151, lg=200 ACK 3357, PSH 3351, lg=600
ACK 3951
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TCP: CONNECTION RELEASE
TCP client A
<END> Snd SEQ N 3357 <ACK> Snd SEQ N 3258 Ack SEQ N 3952
TCP server B
<ACK> <END> Snd SEQ N 3951 Ack SEQ N 3258
IP network
IP
TCP/IP
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TCP : FORMAT
0 7 SOURCE PORT N DESTINATION PORT N SEND SEQUENCE NUMBER ACKNOWLEDGEMENT NUMBER OFFSET RESERVED WINDOW CHECKSUM URGENT POINTER OPTIONS + PADDING URG ACK PSH RST SYN FIN 15
Frame header IP header

Physical IP packet frame
TCP segment
crc
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USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL
Connectionless mode transport protocol Transactional traffic oriented Also used by applications which have control over transmissions (eg.: tftp) In network terms, reduced overhead compared to TCP UDP packet checksums calculated in a pseudo-header (UDP header + source and destination IP addresses sent are replaced by IP source and IP local ports in receive mode) Used by NFS, BOOTP, TFTP, SNMP, RIP, ...
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UDP : FORMAT
7 SOURCE PORT N DESTINATION PORT N LENGTH CHECKSUM
15
Frame header IP header IP Physical packet frame
DATA
UDP segment
CRC
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SOCKET INTERFACE
Development interface for communication between remote processes

The "socket" interface is derived from BSD UNIX 4.2. It generalizes interprocess communication and allows development of network-based client-server applications Sockets are used as interfaces with communication protocols Among other things, they allow a port N (application) to be associated with an IP address (host) They make TCP/IP protocols transparent to applications
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Transport layer : The essential
True or False
All the applications must use TCP or UDP to access the IP network. If an application is associated to a port number, it means that this application is connected to the Internet at this moment. The checksum on the TCP/UDP header also allows to verify parts of the IP header. TCP is defined as reliable because it has 3 working steps : Establishment, Transfer, Release. A WEB server will always listen on its dedicated port (port 80). Either, this server will not work at all. All TCP messages must be acknowldeged. If UDP is used to send data, the transmission may become reliable by adding controls in the application layer part.
TCP/IP
False False
True False
False
True True
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Lower layers : The essential
Complete the following protocols stack : Applications Ping, traceroute, ... Applications protocols Sockets (Port + @IP)
TCP
(Reliability, Robust)
UDP
(Speed, Simple)
ICMP
IP
(Routage)
Interfaces Ethernet+ARP PPP/SLIP AAL5 Gateway
LAN
RTC
ATM
X25
TCP/IP
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Section 5 TCP/IP : APPLICATIONS
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NAME SERVICE
The user manipulates server names and the network manipulates a server IP address. Problems: Finding an IP address based on a host name
More than one type of name

TCP/IP name: standard Used by applications such as http, ftp, smtp, snmp, Netbios name: Windows/Microsoft name Used by Netbios applications (SMB sharing, )
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NAME-IP ADDRESS RESOLUTION
"Static" resolution Host (standard) or lmhosts (Netbios) file 150.10.20.30 Mon_Host 150.10.20.31 Ton_Host "Dynamic" resolution DNS Standard TCP/IP name resolution Replaces the hosts file WINS Netbios resolution Replaces broadcasts and lmhosts file
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DNS RESOLUTION
History Impossible to load a hosts file into all Internet stations Domain Name Service standardized by RFC Principle Names organized hierarchically in a Domain Name Tree Simple request / response interchange protocol Uses UDP and TCP Cooperation between servers forming a network
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DOMAIN NAME TREE
.
ru com fr jp
alcatel
alcatel
alcatel
co
mow
www.mow.alcatel.ru
usa
www.usa.alcatel.com
europe
www.europe.alcatel.fr
alcatel
www.alcatel.co.jp
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TOP LEVEL DOMAINS ON THE INTERNET
Open to all Com : Commercial (highest demand!) Edu : universities Net : network domain companies Org : miscellaneous organizations Int : international (little used) Reserved for United States Gov : American government And also Mil : American military Firm : Business (to alleviate .com) Shop : Trader Country (ISO naming) Web : Company working for the Web Fr : France Arts : Culture and events Rec : Recreation and leisure Uk : United Kingdom Info : Content editors, media Ru : Russia Nom : Personal home pages
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RECURSIVE SEARCH
.
2 3
Root servers
com
4 5
fr alcatel europe
www.europe.alcatel.fr
www : 198.64.191.11
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FORWARDER TYPE SEARCH
4 3
A
Forwarder : B
Server A extends the request to B

If server B fails, A executes a recursive search
www.europe.alcatel.fr ?
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FTP
ftp>
Client
x y
Server
20
21
TCP IP Data Control
TCP IP
Control connection, Port 21 File transfer initialization and parameters Activation of remote commands Data connection, Port 20 Information transfer (files, results, ...)
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FTP : EXAMPLE OF DIALOGUE

Client (150.10.20.30)
ftp serveur username password 331 Password required PASS password 230 User username logged in ascii, binary, mode, ... 220 Commands successful PORT 150,10,20,30,4,45 200 Port Command successful ls, dir, get, put LIST, RETR, STOR Data connection set up to client port 1069 150 ASCII data connection for /bin/ls 226 ASCII transfer complete List, file requested ........ Data connection closure on port 1069 bye, quit 221 Goodbye ... Control connection closure
Control connection set up to server port 21
Server (150.10.20.31)
220 Server ready USER username
Connection
TYPE / STRU / MODE
Transfer
QUIT
Disconnection
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FTP : USER COMMANDS
FTP user commands depend on implementations Commands are executed either locally or in the remote machine. Example: lcd : change local directory cd : change remote directory Some commands are redundant Example: bye and quit, get and recv, put and send, etc
append ascii bell binary bye cd close delete debug dir form get hash glob
help lcd ls mdelete mdir mget mkdir mls mode mput open prompt put pwd
quit quote recv remotehelp rename rmdir send sendport status struct tenex trace ? !
TCP/IP
Page 82
WORLD WIDE WEB
HTTP protocol Web Browser
Web Server
URL : Uniform Ressource Locator Protocol://Server-Name:Port/Resource http://www.estnet.ee/mart/rfc/index.html HTML page interpreted by a Browser, containing:
ASCII text describing the page display (tags, text) Pictures in gif or jpeg format Hypertext links to other pages or URLs Javascript or VB scripts run on the client Java Applets or Active X controls run by the client
TCP/IP
Page 83
SECURE SOCKET LAYER
1 Client Hello
3 Certificate ClientKeyExchange CertificateVerify ChangeCipherSpec
2 Server Hello Certificate ServerKeyExchange CertificateRequest ServerHello Done
4 Data Exchange
1: 2: 3: 4:
4 Data Exchange
Client sends a "hello" message to the target server Server returns a digital certificate containing the server's public key Client generates a random session key and returns the key encrypted using the server's public key Once secured protocol has been established, all documents are sent encrypted symmetrically in both directions (RC4)
TCP/IP
Page 84
ELECTRONIC MESSAGING : E-MAIL POP SMTP A.Dupont's POP server in domain aile.com Message sent by albert.dupont@aile.com to jacques.dupond@alcatel.fr SMTP
Jacques Dupond's IMAP server in domain alcatel.fr
IMAP
Mail received from albert.dupont@aile.com

TCP/IP
Page 85
SMTP : EXAMPLE OF DIALOGUE
SMTP Client
TCP connection set-up to server port 25 220 Server ready
SMTP Server
Connection Synchronization
HELLO SMTP client
250 Server SMTP OK MAIL FROM username
250 Sender Ok
RCPT TO username1 250 Recipient Ok RCPT TO username2 550 User unknown DATA
Identity of Sender and Recipient(s)
354 Enter mail; end with <CRLF> <CRLF>

Message ... <CRLF> <CRLF> 250 Mail accepted QUIT 221 Service closing transmission channel TCP connection release
Message transfer
Disconnection
TCP/IP
Page 86
TELNET
Client
$ telnet server $ login : My_name $ password :
Server
23
TCP
TCP
IP
IP
Characters typed on the keyboard are sent to the telnet server All characters received from the server are displayed
TCP/IP
Page 87
TELNET
Server Telnet : Cisco Router

Terminal Type option negotiation request IAC WILL ECHO IAC WILL SUPPRESS-GO-AHEAD IAC DO TERMINAL_TYPE IAC DO NAWS (Negotiate About Window Size)
Client Telnet : PC
TCP connection
IAC DO ECHO
OK to negotiate
TELNET DATA : Cisco>

IAC WILL ECHO IAC DO SUPPRESS-GO-AHEAD IAC WILL TERMINAL_TYPE IAC WONT NAWS (Negotiate About Window Size) IAC SB (Start of Subnegotiation Parameters) DATA : ANSI IAC SE (End of Subnegotiation Parameters)
IAC WONT NAWS (Negotiate About Window Size) TCP/IP
Page 88
TFTP
Trivial File Transfer Protocol - RFC 1350 TFTP is a file transfer protocol based on connectionless mode transport (UDP port 69). TFTP is used to transfer files in ASCII and BINARY mode.
TFTP provides limited security (no user identification) and for this reason its use must be limited.
TFTP protocol is based on five packet types. Each packet sent from client to server must be acknowledged. TFTP is sometimes used for downloading configurations over the network (terminal server, X terminals, router, etc).
TCP/IP
Page 89
NFS

Network File System - RFC 1094 (specified by SUN Microsystems) NFS is used for file sharing in heterogenous environment NFS protocol is based on RPCs (Remote Procedure Call) NFS is hardware and system-independent. It is based on a presentation layer: XDR (eXternal Data Representation)
NFS XDR
RPC
UDP
IP
TCP/IP
Page 90
REMOTE PROCEDURE CALL
RPC protocol allows a program running on machine A to call a routine on machine B and remotely execute some of its operations.
CLIENT Request
SERVER 4
Service user
Service provider
1
Response 3
Port Mapper
TCP/IP
Page 91
X-WINDOW CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURE
X-Window Clients
X11 protocol
X-Window server
TCP/IP
Page 92
Applications : The essential
True or False
Any IP host must know a DNS server to work correctly An URL is a server address. A host being FTP server, it can connect as a client to a WEB server.
False False True
FTP is the only way to get back a file from a remote Internet site.
TELNET is an application from Internet world, but only used by UNIX systems. The following URL is valid : http://155.132.10.53:2080/coucou.html SMTP is a protocol using the connected mode. To send and receive e-mails, we must configure a POP server !
False False
True True False
TCP/IP
Page 93
Section 6 -
IP NETWORK INTERCONNECTIONS
TCP/IP
Page 94
GATEWAY
Definition The concept of gateway is used in the application layer Eg. : SNA gateway on Digital machine By extension, this concept is applied to all layers and especially the lower layers "Network" gateways are then seen as level N interconnection equipment Terminology Repeater : level 1 gateway Bridge : level 2 gateway Router : level 3 gateway Special case IP gateway = IP router = Level 3 gateway Switch = level 2 switch (Ethernet, ATM, etc) = level 2 gateway
TCP/IP
Page 95
REPEATER
205m
Example: 100BaseT
5m 100m
100m
The binary signal is present at all ports

TCP/IP
Page 96
BRIDGE
CSMA/CD filtering bridge

LAN 1
Dest@ Mac C Src@ Mac A ...
Bridging
LAN 2
Dest@ Mac B Src@ Mac A ...
Port 1 Port 0 BRIDGE
Filtering
Port 0 - @ Mac A - @ Mac B - ...

Port 1 - @ Mac C - @ Mac D - ...
D
TCP/IP
Page 97
BRIDGE : LIMITATIONS
CSMA/CD filtering bridge

LAN 3
LAN 1
Port 2
Dest@ Mac B Src@ Mac A ...
E
Port 0 BRIDGE Port 1 Bridging
Filtering
Port 0 - @ Mac A - @ Mac B - ...

Port 1 - @ Mac C - @ Mac D - ...
C
D LAN 2
TCP/IP
Page 98
ROUTER
A Network 1
Dest@ IP C Src@ IP A ...
Network 3
Port 2
Dest@ IP B Src@ IP A ...
Port 0
Routing
Port 1
Dest@ IP C Src@ IP A ...
Routing Table - Network 1 Connected to port 0 - Network 2 Connected to port 1 - Network 3 Connected to port 2 D
C Network 2
TCP/IP
Page 99
ROUTER
Network interconnection
network 3 170.10.0.0 network 1 LL, ISDN network 2 160.10.0.0
R1
150.10.0.0
X.25, FR, ATM
R2
A
@MAC R1 @IP B
@IP B DATA
DATA
Network 1
DATA
R1
@MAC R2 @IP B
@IP B DATA
@IP B @MAC B @IP B DATA @IP B
Network 3
DATA
R2 B
Network 2
DATA
TCP/IP
Page 100
ROUTING
STATIC a route corresponds to a given address Eg. : Network 150.10.0.0 accessible via R1 in one hop DYNAMIC Routers interchange routing information for choosing the best route based on different criteria Questions: What information is interchanged? When is the information interchanged? What entity is information interchanged with? Choice criteria : metric simple : number of hops multiple : bit rate, load, reliability, etc.
TCP/IP
Page 101
ROUTING
Convergence time length of the routing update delay Volume of information to be interchanged low to very high Routing table size Impossible to control without an address hierarchy Impossible to control without a network hierarchy CIDR : Classless Inter Domain Routing Associates the concept of geographic prefix with class C IP addresses Eg. : 194.150.160.170 -- > 194 represents France Autonomous System Combines a significant number of networks in a single entity
TCP/IP
Page 102
ROUTING ON THE INTERNET
Routing architecture Division of the Internet into Autonomous Systems Protocol types "Internal" (IGP) : RIP, OSPF, IS-IS, EIGRP "External" (EGP) : BGP-4
Net 1 Net 1 RIP Net 2 AS 3 Net 2
AS 1
BGP4
Net 3 OSPF
Net 1 Net 2 AS 2
E.G.P. I.G.P.
Net 3 EIGRP
Net 4
TCP/IP
Page 103
ROUTING : CATEGORIES
Distance Vector
Routers interchange routing tables cyclically
The best route has the least routers to be crossed Convergence time is lengthy Volume is significant There is a risk of looping Few processor resources are required

RIP, Routing Information Protocol (IETF) IGRP, Inter Gateway Routing Protocol (Cisco) EIGRP Enhanced Inter Gateway Routing Protocol (Cisco)
TCP/IP
Page 104
LINK STATE
Each router builds a network map Routers interchange link states on an event basis The best route incurs the lowest cost Convergence time is low Volume is low No risk of looping The process is bulky
OSPF, Open Shortest Path First (IETF) IS-IS , Intermediate System to Intermediate System (ISO)
TCP/IP
Page 105
PATH VECTOR
Changes in the Link State Routes are described using the path taken Each router builds a network map Routers interchange path attributes on an event basis The best path incurs the least cost (including financial) Convergence time is fast Volume is low No risk of looping
BGP4, Border Gateway Protocol (IETF)
TCP/IP
Page 106
Interconnection : The essential
True or False
Internet is made of plenty of networks connected by routers. An IP network can contain several LANs Intelligents bridges can analyse the IP header to route packets better.
True True False True True False
Internet is shared in zones to decrease routing management traffic.

Routing protocols were implemented from the beginning of Internet 30 years ago. Any IP host must know the IP address of a router to communicate with other hosts. Each time a packet enters a router, OSPF is used in order to find the right route to destination.
False
TCP/IP
Page 107
Section 7 NETWORK ADMINISTRATION
TCP/IP
Page 108
ADMINISTRATION
Objective : To Manage, Optimize, Configure, Secure, Observe, Correct

INDEPENDENTLY OF PROPRIETARY TOOLS
MANAGING CONFIGURATIONS
Mechanisms to manage and set up resources
Norms / Standards
CMIS / CMIP
Common Management Information Service / Protocol
CARRYING OUT OBSERVATIONS

Measurements, statistics, performance, load
MANAGING EVENTS
Detection, location, restart on incident, alarms
CMOT
CMIS/CMIP Over TCP/IP
MANAGING COSTS
Allocating and distributing loads
SNMP
Simple Network Management Protocol
TCP/IP
Page 109
SIMPLE NETWORK MANAGEMENT PROTOCOL
MANAGER
Graphics tool providing the man/machine interface The Manager sends requests and receives responses to
administration commands HP Openview and SunNet Manager are SNMP Managers
AGENT The agent is the Server for Client Manager requests Manager and Agent dialogue via SNMP An agent can extend SNMP requests in proprietary format (agent proxy) SNMP Agents manipulate objects MIB Management Information Base MIB I and II describe more than 200 standardized objects
TCP/IP
Page 110
SNMP ADMINISTRATION
Manager
Server Agent
MIB
Agent Router Agent Agent Hub

MIB
MIB
Router
snmp
Agent
MIB
Agent Agent proxy
Bridge
MIB
Bridge Pabx Agent Agent
MIB
proprietary
TCP/IP
Page 111
SNMP PROTOCOL : 5 PDUs

AGENT MIB consultation Simple
MIB
MANAGER
Get_request (object,object,...) Get_response (value,value,...) Get_Next_request (object,object,...)
1 2 3
Multiple
MIB modification
MIB
Get_response (value,value,...)
Set_request ((object,value),...)
MIB
Get_response (value,value,...)
Agent Alert
MIB
Trap (infos)
TCP/IP
Page 112
MANAGEMENT INFORMATION BASE
OSI tree
ISOITU 3
ISO 1 ORG 3 DOD 6
ITU 2
Internet Branches
Directory ( 1.3.6.1.1 ) OSI directory in TCP/IP Mgmt ( 1.3.6.1.2 ) Standard MIB (MIB I and II) Experimental ( 1.3.6.1.3 ) IAB trials Private ( 1.3.6.1.4 ) Manufacturer private MIBs
TCP/IP
Internet 1
Directory 1
Mgmt 2
Experimental 3
Private 4
Page 113
MANAGEMENT INFORMATION BASE
Internet tree - MIB-II

Internet
1
Directory 1
Mgmt 2
Experimental 3
Private 4
MIB-2 1
At System 3 1 Interface 2
ICMP 5 IP 4 TCP 6
UDP 7
EGP 8
CMOT 9 Trans. 10
TCP/IP
SNMP 11
Page 114
STANDARD MIB I - II VARIABLES
Examples of variables
SysUpTime : Time elapsed since last startup (System) IfNumber : Number of network interfaces (Interface) ATTable : MAC-IP address translation table (Addr. Trans.) IPdefaultTTL : Time to live value for IP packets (Interface) IPInReceives : Number of datagrams received (IP) IPForwDatagrams : Number of datagrams forwarded (IP) IPOutNoRoutes : Number of packets routed in error (IP) IPReasmOKs : Number of packets reassembled correctly (IP) IPFragOKs : Number of packets fragmented (IP) IPRoutingTable : Routing table (IP) ICMPInEchos : Number of "Echo Request" PDUs received (IP) TCPMaxConn : Maximum number of TCP connections allowed (TCP) TCPInSegs : Number of TCP segments received (TCP) UDPInDatagrams : Number of UDP datagrams received (UDP)
TCP/IP
Page 115
ANALYSIS OF IP NETWORKS
Solution 1:
Analyzer
"conventional" analyzer
Analyzer
Analyzer
R2
R1
Local area network 1 Local area network 2
Local area network 3
Solution 2:
SNMP probe + MIB Rmon

Probe
SNMP
Probe R1 R2 Local area network 2 Local area network 3

TCP/IP
Probe
Administration station
Local area network 1
Page 116
Network management : The essential
True or False
The MIB content is sent from the manager to the agent using the SNMP protocol. Some objects are defined in MIB I and II for standard equipments, but each firm may create his own objects hierarchy. SNMP is a pragmatical protocol like any other protocol from IP world. SNMP is simple and not reliable (over UDP), so a few constructors use it. Other network management architectures exist : Q3 (with CMIP) and CORBA Without network management, an equipment can not be set up. Analysing the IP branch of the MIB II, all the characteristics of this protocol can be retrieved (like those described in this document about IP introduction)
False True
True False True False
True
TCP/IP
Page 117
Section 8 SECURITY
TCP/IP
Page 118
SECURITY
System security Password verification Minimum privileges assigned to server processes Filtering on protocols Filtering router Firewall Proxy Server Information encryption SSL S/MIME User authentication Kerberos SecurID Radius
TCP/IP
Page 119
THE FILTERING ROUTER SOLUTION
Private addresses 150.10.0.0
Public addresses 192.170.145.0 ISDN, LL X.25, FR, ATM
INTRANET
ISP
Filtering router
I N T E R N E T
Filtering of: address, appli, protocol

Network Address Translation
TCP/IP
Page 120
THE INTERNET FIREWALL SOLUTION
Secured transparent access to Internet servers Intranet

ISDN, LL X.25, FR, ATM
ISP
Firewall
I N T E R N E T
TCP/IP
Page 121
THE PROXY SERVER SOLUTION
Powerful, non-transparent access to Internet applications Intranet
ISDN, LL X.25, FR, ATM
ISP
Proxy Server
I N T E R N E T
TCP/IP
Page 122
INFORMATION SECURITY
OBJECTIVES
Integrity Data must not be altered Authentication The recipient must be sure of the sender's identity Confidentiality Data must not circulate unencrypted Non-Repudiation The recipient must hold a proof of sending
TCP/IP
Page 123
SYMMETRIC KEY ENCRYPTION
This is a private message
Mr X
xxxxxxxx xxxxxxx xxxxxxx
Mrs Y
Mr X creates the message and encrypts it using the key known to himself and Mrs Y He sends the encrypted message over the network Mrs Y receives the encrypted message and decodes it using the key
TCP/IP
Page 124
ASYMMETRIC KEY ENCRYPTION
Mr X
Mrs Y's public key
Mrs Y
Mrs Y's private key
Mrs Y creates two keys, one private and known to no-one else, and one public which is circulated over the network Mr X creates the message and encrypts it using Mrs Y's public key He sends the encrypted message over the network Mrs Y receives the encrypted message and decodes it using a private key (only she can decode the message, guaranteeing that no-one other than Mr X and Mrs Y can read the message) If Mrs Y wants to reply, she uses Mr X's public key
TCP/IP
Page 125
COMBINED SYMMETRIC / ASYMMETRIC KEY
Information confidentiality
xxxxxxxxx xxxxxx xxxxxxx Session key
Mr X
Session key Mrs Y's private key xxxxxxxxx xxxxxx xxxxxxx
Mrs Y
Mrs Y's public key
Mr X encrypts the message using a symmetric key created specifically for this purpose. Mr X then encrypts the session key using Mrs Y's public key and sends all this information to Mrs Y. Mrs Y decodes the session key using her private key, then decodes the message using the session key.
TCP/IP
Page 126
Section 9 IP VERSION 6
TCP/IP
Page 127
IP VERSION 6
Addressing space running out 128-bit addresses Routing table size 128-bit addresses organized hierarchically Lack of security Authentication mechanism Incorporation of new services Machine mobility Simplicity of configuration New applications (multimedia, VoD, remote control, ...) New version of IP protocol extends the addressing and routing function broadcasts superseded by anycasts introduces quality of service information (real time applications, multipoint, security, etc)
TCP/IP
Page 128
IP V6 : HEADER
32 bits 4 bits Vers Pri. Payload Length 16 bits Flow Label Next Header 8 bits Hop Limit
Source Address (128 bits)
40 octets
Destination Address (128 bits)
TCP/IP
Page 129
IP V6 ADDRESSING
Unicast address general format 3 5 16
Provider identifier
16
32
Subnetwork identifier
Format Registry Prefix identifier
Subscriber Subscriber type identifier
Example: Site local addresses: Intranet with router 1111 1110 11

Prefix
Not used Subnetwork Isolated Intranet Interface
32
Examples: Link local addresses: network with no router 1111 1110 10

Prefix
Not used
@ MAC interface
TCP/IP
Page 130
The essential of the essential
True or False
To entirely secure a private network, we just have to install a firewall in order to connect to the Internet. A proxy server is a singular router; so, it s also an IP host. IP v6 evolution is necessary, because of a penury of addresses.
False
True True
Exercice
From home, you want to connect to a commercial Internet site in order to buy a CD on-line. Please complete the schema of the following page by drawing and naming the networks transitted to reach the Internet site, as well as their equipments Show and name the protocols used to make this connection work.
TCP/IP
Page 131
The essential of the essential
SHTTP/SSL/TCP/IP/...
Your PC
LAN
Server Y
Modem
OSPF or RIP or ...

PSTN
AS
IP/PPP
ISP
AS Internet Server POP3

Proxy
TCP/IP
SNMP Manager
Page 132
Glossary : A - I
ARP BOOTP DHCP DNS FTP HTML HTTP IAB IETF IP IRTF ITU-T
Address Resolution Protocol Boot Protocol Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Domain Name Service File Transfer Hyper Text Markup Language Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Internet Activities Board Internet Ingineering Task Force Internet Protocol Internet Research Task Force International Telecommunications Union - Telecom
TCP/IP
Page 133
Glossary : L - R
LAN MAN MIB NIC OSI OSPF PDU POP PPP RFC RPC
Local Access Network Metropolitan Access Network Model Information Base Network Information Center Open System Interconnexion Open Shortest Path First Packet Data Unit Post Office Protocol Point to Point Protocol Request For Comment Remote Procedure Call
TCP/IP
Page 134
Glossary : S - Z
SDU SHTTP SLIP SMTP SNMP SSL TCP UDP WWW
Service Data Unit Secured HTTP Serial Link Internet Protocol Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Simple Network Management Protocol Secured Socket Layer Transmission Control Protocol User Datagram Protocol World Wide Web
TCP/IP
Page 135

Intro IP

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INTRODUCTION TO IP NETWORKS

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

Section 1 INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

Application Presentation Session Management of application connections

End-to-end management Network interconnection

Data link Physical

Physical bearer access method

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

CONNECTION-ORIENTED AND CONNECTIONLESS MODE

The connection-oriented mode is associated with the concept of reliable transfer

It involves three phases:

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

TCP/IP communication complies with the CLIENT-SERVER model

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

TP0, ..., TP4 X.25 PLP Internet 8473

Ethernet Token Ring

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

REQUESTS FOR COMMENTS

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

Telnet SMTP DNS FTP X-Window

TFTP SNMP NNTP DHCP HTTP

NFS XDR RPC

ARP HDLC, LAP-B X21, V35, S, T WAN

Ethernet Token Ring LAN

Introduction : The essential

False False True False True False True

A reliable transfer must be transmitted by a reliable physical bearer.

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

Section 2 IP LAYER PROTOCOLS

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

IP is a protocol that can be routed in connectionless mode

Type : Best Effort Delivery

IP needs a transport protocol IP is non-reliable

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

LAN Ethernet LAN Token Ring

WAN X.25, FR, ATM PSTN-ISDN

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

In IP V4, an address is coded on 32 bits

It is identified using the concept of address class

Class A : NET ID 1st octet, Host ID 3 octets

Class B : NET ID 2 octets, Host ID 2 octets

Class C : NET ID 3 octets, Host ID 1 octet

Hosts : 16 777 214

Nets : 2 097 152

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

Value 0 : represents ANY Host

127.X.X.X addresses are LOOPBACK addresses

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

Restricted broadcast : 255.255.255.255

10010110 150 AND 11111111 .

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000

On same network: Different host Ns

An IP machine must know:

- its subnetwork mask - at least one IP router address

SENDING THE IP DATAGRAM

Interface 150.10.20.30 127.0.0.1 150.10.20.30 127.0.0.1 150.10.20.30 150.10.20.30 150.10.20.30

Alcatel University - 8AS 90145 0007 VT ZZA Ed.02 - June 2000