Body Cavities

FORMATION OF THE BODY CAVITY At the end of the3rd week, intraembryonic mesoderm differentiates into paraxial mesoderm, that forms somitomeres and somites ;intermediate mesoderm, that contributes to the urogenital system; and lateral plate mesoderm that is involved in forming the body cavity (Fig. 11.1). Soon after it forms as a solid mesodermal layer, clefts appear in the lateral plate mesoderm that coalesce to split the solid layer into two: (a) the parietal (somatic) layer adjacent to the surface ectoderm &continuous with the extraembryonic parietal mesoderm layer over the amnion & (b) the visceral (splanchnic) layer adjacent to endoderm forming the gut tube and continuous with the visceral layer of extraembryonic mesoderm covering the yolk sac (Figs. 11.1 &11.2). The space created between the two layers of lateral plate mesoderm constitutes the primitive body cavity. During the fourth week, the sides of the embryo begin to grow ventrally forming two lateral body wall folds (Fig. 11.2). These folds consist of the parietal layer of lateral plate mesoderm, overlying ectoderm, and cells from adjacent somites that migrate into this mesoderm across the lateral somitic frontier . As these folds progress, the endoderm layer also folds ventrally and closes to form the gut tube (Fig. 11.2). By the end of the fourth week, the lateral body wall folds meet in the midline and fuse to close the ventral body wall (Fig. 11.2B,C). This closure is aided by head and tail folds that cause the embryo to curve into the fetal position (Fig. 11.3). Closure of the ventral body wall is complete except in the region of the connecting stalk. Similarly, closure of the gut tube is complete except for a connection from the midgut region to the yolk sac that forms the vitelline (yolk sac) duct (Fig. 11.3). This duct is incorporated into the umbilical cord, becomes very narrow (Fig. 7.9, p. 98), degenerates between the second and third months of gestation. Note that throughout the process of body cavity and gut tube development, the parietal and visceral layers of lateral plate mesoderm are continuous with each other at the junction of the gut tube with the posterior body wall

Figure 11.1 A. Transverse section through an embryo of approximately 19 days. Intercellular clefts are visible in the lateral plate mesoderm. B. Section through an embryo of approximately 20 days. The lateral plate is divided into somatic and visceral mesoderm layers that line the intraembryonic cavity. Tissue bordering the intraembryonic cavity differentiates into serous membranes.

Figure 11.2 Transverse sections through embryos at various stages of development. A. The intraembryonic cavity is in open communication with the extraembryonic cavity. B. The intraembryonic cavity is about to lose contact with the extraembryonic cavity. C. At the end of the fourth week, splanchnic mesoderm layers are continuous with somatic layers as a double-layered membrane, the dorsal mesentery. Dorsal mesentery extends from the caudal limit of the foregut to the end of the hindgut. D,E. Scanning electron
micrographs of sections through mouse embryos showing details similar to those in Figure 11.2B,C. G, gut tube; arrowheads, splanchnic mesoderm; C, body cavity; arrow, dorsal mesentery; A, dorsal aorta; NT, neural tube.

Figure 11.3 A.-D. Midsagittal sections of embryos at various stages of development showing cephalocaudal folding and its effects upon position of the heart, septum transversum, yolk sac, and amnion. Note that, as folding progresses, the opening of the gut tube into the yolk sac narrows until it forms a thin connection, the vitelline (yolk sac) duct, between the midgut and the yolk sac (D). Simultaneously, the amnion is pulled ventrally until the amniotic cavity nearly surrounds the embryo. A. 17 days. B. 22 days. C. 24 days. D. 28 days. Arrows; head and tail folds.

 Figure 11.4 A.-D. Examples of ventral body wall defects due to failure of the ventral body wall to close. A. Ectopia cordis. The heart lies outside the thorax, and there is a cleft in the thoracic wall. B. Gastroschisis. Intestines have herniated through the abdominal wall to the right of the umbilicus, the most common location for this defect. C. Bladder exstrophy. Closure in the pelvic region has failed. In males, the defect usually includes a split in the dorsum of the penis, a defect called epispadius. D. Cloacal exstrophy. A larger closure defect in which most of the pelvic region has failed to close, leaving the bladder, part of the rectum, and the anal canal exposed.

Figure 11.5 Examples of omphaloceles, a defect that occurs when loops of bowel, that normally herniate into the umbilical cord during the 6th to 10th weeks of gestation (physiological umbilical herniation), fail to return to the body cavity. A. Drawing showing loops of herniated bowel within the umbilical cord that have failed to return to the abdominal cavity. The bowel is covered by amnion because this membrane normally reflects onto the umbilical cord. B. Infant with an omphalocele. The defect is associated with other major malformations and chromosome abnormalities.

Figure 11.6 A. Drawing showing the ventral view of an embryo at 24 days' gestation. The gut tube is closing, the anterior and posterior intestinal portals are visible, and the heart lies in the primitive pleuropericardial cavity, which is partially separated from the abdominal cavity by the septum transversum (arrow). B. Portion of an embryo at approximately 5 weeks with parts of the body wall and septum transversum removed to show the pericardioperitoneal canals. Note the size and thickness of the septum transversum and liver cords penetrating the septum. C. Growth of the lung buds into the pericardioperitoneal canals. Note the pleuropericardial folds.

 Figure 11.7 A. Transformation of the pericardioperitoneal canals into the pleural cavities and formation of the pleuropericardial membranes. Note the pleuropericardial folds containing the common cardinal vein and phrenic nerve. Mesenchyme of the body wall splits into the pleuropericardial membranes and definitive body wall. B. The thorax after fusion of the pleuropericardial folds with each other and with the root of the lungs. Note the position of the phrenic nerve, now in the fibrous pericardium. The right common cardinal vein has developed into the superior vena cava.

 Figure 11.8 Development of the diaphragm. A. Pleuroperitoneal folds appear at the beginning of the fifth week. B. Pleuroperitoneal folds fuse with the septum transversum and mesentery of the esophagus in the seventh week, separating the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. C. Transverse section at the fourth month of development. An additional rim derived from the body wall forms the most peripheral part of the diaphragm.

 Figure 11.9 Congenital diaphragmatic hernia. A. Abdominal surface of the diaphragm showing a large defect of the pleuroperitoneal membrane. B. Hernia of the intestinal loops and part of the stomach into the left pleural cavity. The heart and mediastinum are frequently pushed to the right, and the left lung is compressed. C. Radiograph of a newborn with a large defect in the left side of the diaphragm. Abdominal viscera have entered the thorax through the defec

PROBLEMS TO SOLVE
1. A newborn infant cannot breathe and soon dies. An autopsy reveals a large diaphragmatic defect on the left side, with the stomach and intestines occupying the left side of the thorax. Both lungs are severely hypoplastic. What is the embryological basis for this defect? View Answer 2. A child is born with a large defect lateral to the umbilicus. Most of the large and the small bowel protrude through the defect and are not covered by amnion. What is the embryological basis for this abnormality, and should you be concerned that other malformations may be present? View Answer 3. Explain why the phrenic nerve, which supplies motor and sensory fibers to the diaphragm, originates from cervical segments when most of the diaphragm is in the thorax. From which cervical segments does the nerve originate? View Answer