Metabolism and endocrine system

Dep.of Biochemistry
( rosdiana natzir )

1. METABOLISM
* carbohydrate * lipid * citric acid cycle

2. Biochemical structure of Hormones

Carbohydrate metabolism and synthesis

> a simple sugars are characterized by the reducing group = C=O. RC=O II ( CHOH )n I CH2OH

-----> a reducing sugar.

CH metabolism Sugar derivates :

Maltose ----> on starch ; lactose ---> disaccharide of milk ; sucrose ---> from sugar cane or beet ( nonreducing sugar ). Glyconic acids ----> from oxidation of glucose or ascorbic acids. Polyols ----> polyhydric alcohols such as mannitol; sorbitol ( from fructose ); galactitol ( from galactose ) Sorbitol and galactitol is excess in many tissues such as peripheral nerves; cerebrospinal; seminal fluids ---> important in diabetes .

Hexoses : d-glucose; d- fructose; d-galactose.

> d-glucose + d-fructose ----> d-glucose 1-P --->---> glycogen.

> d-galactose ----> d-glucose ( blood circulation )

 Galactose ----> for the biosynthesis of cell membranes; cerebrosides; glycoproteins. Glycolysis Aerobic glycolysis and anaerobic glycolysis. Hexose monophosphate shunt/pentose phosphate pathway.

 Aerobic glycolysis : degradative pathway of d-glucose to pyruvate and then decarboxylated to acetyl coA which enter the citric acid cycle ---> then it is oxidized to CO2 + H2O. ==> form 24 ATP of 1 mol glucose. Anaerobic glycolysis ----> if inadequate for complete oxidation ( supply of O2 is less ).---> pyruvate is reduced to form lactate ( such as stress; extreme exercise ). ==> form 2 lactate and 2 ATP of 1 mol glucose. Final stage of glycolysis ----> oxidation of 3-phospho-d-glyceraldehyde and 2,3-bisphospho d-glycerate to pyruvate. ---> convert from 1,3-bisphodpho d-glycerate in erythrocyte ===> a molecule that plays an important role in the transport of O2 of Hb.

 HMP shunt ----> is the oxidation of glucose 6-P to form ribose 5-P or fructose 6-P ==> important role in nucleotide synthesis and NADPH. If the ( NADPH ) in liver is high, the enzyme of glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase ( G6PD ) become elevated in the liver and erythrocyte.

Function of G6PD : to form glutathione ( antioxidant and energy of RBC ) ---> anemia hemolytic when it is deficient.

CH synthesis : Inadequate amounts of d-glucose in the diet or from glycogen storage---> then the body responds by synthesizing glucose from non-CH is called gluconeogenesis.

Source of gluconeogenesis are amino acids; glucagon hormone.

 Blood glucose << ---> elevated insulin. Blood glucose >> ---> elevated glucagon and ephinephrine.

Lipid Metabolism classifications and functions

lipid Fatty acids acylglycerols phospholipids sphingolipids Ketone bodies functions Metabolic fuel; building block for others lipids. Fatty acids storage and transport; metabolic intermediates ( CAC ). Membrane structures; membrane signal transduction. Membrane structure; surface antigens. Metabolic fuels.

Fatty acids :
saturated and unsaturated ( contain one or more double bonds) such as mono- or polyunsaturated.
Important unsaturated FA :

Omega 7 : palmitoleic acid Omega 9 : oleic acids Omega 6 : linoleic acids Omega 3 : linolenic acids; EPA ( eicosapentanoic acid=20 carbon atoms ); DHA ( docosahexanoic acids 22 carbon atoms ). ---> omega 3 and 6 are essential fatty acids ---> for maximum development of the visual and central nervous system durin the neonatal periods.

Fatty acids oxidation : Major metabolic fuel for human. Catabolized to form CO2 and H2O and 40% for ATP and heat. B-oxidation FA ----> form acetyl CoA pyruvate glucose. Also acetyl CoA to form citrate ----> to acetyl CoA and axaloacetate by citrate lyase. ( reversible reaction ). TAG ( triacylglycerol ) or triglyceride synthesized from monoglyceride and glycerol 3-phosphate. TAG accumulations in adipocytes from blood plasma ( plasma lipoproteins: VLDL and chylomicrons ) and this TAG is derived from glucose. Transport of glucose into adipocyte is stimulated by insuline.

Ketone bodies : Synthesized and released by the liver when FA is the main metabolic substrate. 3 metabolic products : acetoacetate; B-hydroxybutyrate; acetone ---> called ketone bodies. ---> they are produced when excessive amounts of FA are being mobilized and oxidized because glucose is low ( such as during prolonged aerobic exercise; in starvation; in diabetic ).---> further reactions is ----> ketone body oxidation. ketone bodies oxidation ---> into blood plasma--> to the brain ; heart; skeletal muscle and used as an energy.

7 mmol/L conc.normal ----> >>> ketosis and ketonuria

Cholesterol :
From diet and acetyl CoA. In blood plasma as a LDL ----> if elevated, cholesterol-rich lipid deposits in arterial wall ---> endothelial injury ---> plaque atherosclerosis----> thrombosis ---> with lack of O2 form tissue ischemia. Major sterol of human body---> component of cell membrane; sex hormones; bile acids.

Others structure of hormone :

Protein hormones : GH; prolactin; human chorionic somatomammotropin;renin. Glycoprotein: FSH; LH; HCG;TSH. Polypeptide hormones: PTH;calcitonin;insulin;glucagon;Insulin like GFI-II; adrenocorticotropic hormone ( ACTH ). Oligopeptide hormones : ADH; oxytocin; TRH; GnRH.