Chapter 1 Introduction

General and Inorganic Chemistry
Introduction to Chemistry
Copyright (c) 1999 by Harcourt Brace & Company All rights reserved
What is Chemistry?
Chemistry is the study of chemicals; how properties depend on composition. What substances are and how they change. El Khemid - the transformation. Chemistry is about changing substances into others. What chemicals? First metals then cosmetics, medicines, ceramics, glass making.
What did early chemists do?

Identify, classify, describe; Knowledge leads to curiosity. Rather than learn all substances seek underlying patterns and theories that explain chemical behavior. Apply scientific method.
Apply Scientific Method

Observation: with statement of certainty is a fact Laws: generalized observations Hypothesis: to explain observations i.e. predictions Experiment: test hypothesis Theory: tested hypothesis Model: combination of theories that form a general explanation of wide variety of phenomenon
A Delicate Balance
Science is different from art in that scientific knowledge requires agreement; first of the facts and then of the theories. There is a delicate balance between what is known and what we think about what is known. This is the idea of provisional truth; we believe our hypotheses but maintain a healthy skepticism.
Serendipity
"Chance favors the prepared mind Scientific results often times occur by accident When asked what did you think when you saw the bones of your hand on the screen in front of the cathode ray tube? Roentgen replied I did not think. I investigated.
Why Study Chemistry?

Because it is required for my major Chemistry is a central science that plays a vital role in our everyday life It is important for the biologist, geologist, engineer, physician, etc.
How do we describe matter?

Matter occupies space and has weight. (Actually Mass, weight is the affect of gravity on mass). Matter exists in three physical states. Solid Liquid Gas
Kinetic Molecular Theory

All matter consists of tiny particles in constant motion Solid: tightly packed in a regular format Liquids: loosely packed and take shape of container Gases : randomly packed and expand to fill their container Temperature will increase the motion
Observing Matter
Macroscopic level Microscopic level Submicroscopic level It is the submicroscopic level which explains the basis of much of chemistry and the reactions and processes behind chemistry
Compounds or Mixtures
Compounds : two or more different elements chemically attached Mixture : material that can be separated into two or more substances
Every sample of a pure substance has the same properties. In contrast the properties of mixtures depend on the compostion of each sample
Matter Substances
Mixtures
Pure Substances
Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
Elements
Compounds
Solutions
Colloids
Metals
Non-metals
Molecular
Ionic
Solids
Liquids
Gases
Mixtures
Mixtures: can be separated into their pure components by physical means
Filtration Mechanical separation Distilation Dissolving Chromatography
Elements & Compounds

Elements: can not be broken down into simpler substances Compounds: can be chemically broken down into the elements of which they are composed. There are 108 elements known but 40 of these compose 99.9% of all substances. 10 elements compose 99% of the earths crust.
Elements
Metals are: Malleable Ductile Lustrous Conductors heat electricity
The chemical symbols for some metals are not the same as the first letter of the English name for the element: Pb-lead W-tungsten K-potassium Cucopper Fe-iron Hgmercury Na-sodium Sn-tin
Elements
These non-metals are solids at room temperature: Arsenic-As Phosphorous-P Sulfur-S
Iodine-I
Selenium-Se
Boron-B
Carbon-C
Bromine - Br is a liquid
The rest are gases
Properties of Matter
Physical properties: Color, mp, bp, density, index of refraction. Observation of these do not change chemical composition. Chemical properties: Observation of these causes a chemical change; substances become other substances. Reactivity with acids to liberate carbons dioxide.
Physical Properties
What are some physical properties? color melting and boiling point odor
Physical Changes
Some physical changes would be boiling of a liquid melting of a solid dissolving a solid in a liquid to give a homogeneous mixture a SOLUTION.
DENSITY - an important
and useful physical property
mass (g) Density volume (cm3)

Mercury Gold
13.6 g/cm3
19.3 g/cm3
Problem: A piece of copper has a mass of 57.54 g. It is 9.36 cm long, 7.23 cm wide, and 0.95 mm thick. Calculate density (g/cm3).
mass (g) Density volume (cm3)
SOLUTION 1. Get dimensions in common units.
2.
Calculate volume in cubic centimeters.
3.
Calculate the density.
1cm 0.95 mm = 0.095 cm 10 mm

2. Calculate volume in cubic centimeters.
3.
1cm 0.95 mm = 0.095 cm 10 mm

(9.36 cm)(7.23 cm)(0.095 cm) = 6.4 cm3
3.
1cm 0.95 mm = 0.095 cm 10 mm

(9.36 cm)(7.23 cm)(0.095 cm) = 6.4 cm3

3. Calculate the density.
57.54 g 6.4 cm
3 = 9.0 g/ cm
Relative Densities of the Elements
DENSITY
Be sure to notice that Styrofoam DENSITY is an INTENSIVE PROPERTY of matter. INTENSIVE does not depend on quantity of matter. Contrast with EXTENSIVE depends on quantity of matter. Examples are mass and volume.
Brick
PROBLEM: Mercury (Hg) has a density of 13.6 g/cm3. What is the mass of 95 mL of Hg? In grams? In pounds?
Solve the problem using DIMENSIONAL
ANALYSIS.
PROBLEM: Mercury (Hg) has a density of 13.6 g/cm3. What is the mass of 95 mL of Hg?
First, note that 1
cm3 = 1 mL
First, note that 1
cm3 = 1 mL
Then, use dimensional analysis to calculate mass.
13.6 g 3 3 g 95 cm = 1.3 x 10 cm3
Use dimensional analysis.
13.6 g 3 3 95 cm = 1.3 x 10 g 3 cm
What is the mass in pounds? (1 lb = 454 g)
Use dimensional analysis.
13.6 g 3 3 95 cm = 1.3 x 10 g 3 cm
What is the mass in pounds? (1 lb = 454 g)
3 1.3 x 10 g
1 lb = 2.8 lb 454 g
Chemical Properties and Chemical Change

Burning hydrogen (H2) in oxygen (O2) gives H2O.
Chemical Properties and Chemical Change

Burning hydrogen (H2) in oxygen (O2) gives H2O.
Chemical change or chemical reaction involves the transformation of one or more atoms or molecules into one or more different molecules.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
We make QUALITATIVE observations of reactions changes in color and physical state. We also make QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENTS, which involve numbers. Use SI units based on the metric system
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Use SI units based on the metric system
length mass (meter, m) (kilogram, kg, and gram, g) (second)
time
Units of Length
1 kilometer (km) = ? meters (m)
1 meter (m) = ? centimeters (cm)
1 centimeter (cm) = ? millimeter (mm)

1 nanometer (nm) = 1.0 x 10-9 meter
Mega Kilo Deci Centi Milli Mico Nano
106 103 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9
Femto 10-12
Units of Length
1 kilometer (km) = ? meters (m) 1 meter (m) = ? centimeters (cm)
1 centimeter (cm) = ? millimeter (mm)

1 nanometer (nm) = 1.0 x 10-9 meter
OH distance = 9.4 x 10-11 m 9.4 x 10-9 cm 0.094 nm

Temperature Scales
Fahrenheit
Temperature Scales
Fahrenheit Celsius
Anders Celsius 1701-1744
Temperature Scales
Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin
Anders Celsius 1701-1744 Lord Kelvin (William Thomson) 1824-1907

Temperature Scales
Fahrenheit Boiling Point of water 212
180
Celsius 100
100
Kelvin 373.15
100
Freezing Point of water
32
273.15
Notice that 1 kelvin degree = 1 degree Celsius

Temperature Scales
100 oF 38 oC 311 K
oF
oC
Calculations Using Temperature

Generally require temps in kelvins T (K) = T (C) + 273.15
Body temp = 37 oC + 273 = 310 K

Liquid nitrogen = -196 oC + 273 = 77 K
Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy : closeness of the measured value to the accepted Precision : the reproducibility or the agreement between replicate measurements of the same quantity
Accuracy and Precision
Calculating Error
Error = the experimental value the accepted value Percent error = error/ accepted value x 100 This is often what we will use in the lab to determine how far our result is from the accepted value
Significant Figures
1. All non - zero digits and captured zeros ARE SIGNIFICANT: 6023 has four significant figures. 2.Zeros used only to position the decimal point are NOT SIGNIFICANT: 0.0006023 has four significant figures. 3.If a result ends in zeros to the right of the decimal point then those zeros ARE SIGNIFICANT. 2.200 has four significant figures. 4.If a result ends in zeros not to the right of the decimal point these zero ARE NOT SIGNIFICANT. 600 000 has only one significant figure.
Significant Arithmetic
Arithmetic Results can not be more precise than the measurements themselves. For multiplication or division: The result may have only as many significant digits as the term that has the least number of digits. For addition or subtraction: The result may have only as many decimal places as the term that has the least number of digits to the right of the decimal point.
For multiplication or division:

The result may have only as many significant digits as the term that has the least number of digits.
104.11.2780 18.22463013699 7.3

= 18
For addition or subtraction:

The result may have only as many decimal places as the term that has the least number of digits to the right of the decimal point.
123.456 34.432 1.28 100.02
259.188
259.19
The Law of Constant Composition

The relative amounts of each element in a compound are always the same. Mass percentage or percent composition
Mass of Element Mass of compound X 100 % massFe = 1.56/2.46 x100 = 63.4146 %
Fe = 1.56 g
S= 0.9007g 2.46g
= 63.4%
% massS = 0.9007/2.46 x100 = 36.61% = 36.6 %

Chapter 1 Introduction

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Chapter 1 Introduction

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General and Inorganic Chemistry

What did early chemists do?

Apply Scientific Method

Why Study Chemistry?

How do we describe matter?

Kinetic Molecular Theory

Elements & Compounds

mass (g) Density volume (cm3)

mass (g) Density volume (cm3)

SOLUTION 1. Get dimensions in common units.

Calculate volume in cubic centimeters.

Calculate the density.

SOLUTION 1. Get dimensions in common units.

1cm 0.95 mm = 0.095 cm 10 mm

Calculate the density.

SOLUTION 1. Get dimensions in common units.

1cm 0.95 mm = 0.095 cm 10 mm

(9.36 cm)(7.23 cm)(0.095 cm) = 6.4 cm3

Calculate the density.

SOLUTION 1. Get dimensions in common units.

1cm 0.95 mm = 0.095 cm 10 mm

(9.36 cm)(7.23 cm)(0.095 cm) = 6.4 cm3

Relative Densities of the Elements

Solve the problem using DIMENSIONAL

Then, use dimensional analysis to calculate mass.

13.6 g 3 3 g 95 cm = 1.3 x 10 cm3

Chemical Properties and Chemical Change

Chemical Properties and Chemical Change

1 centimeter (cm) = ? millimeter (mm)

Mega Kilo Deci Centi Milli Mico Nano

106 103 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9

1 centimeter (cm) = ? millimeter (mm)

OH distance = 9.4 x 10-11 m 9.4 x 10-9 cm 0.094 nm

Anders Celsius 1701-1744

Anders Celsius 1701-1744 Lord Kelvin (William Thomson) 1824-1907

Freezing Point of water

Notice that 1 kelvin degree = 1 degree Celsius

Calculations Using Temperature

Body temp = 37 oC + 273 = 310 K

Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy and Precision

For multiplication or division:

104.11.2780 18.22463013699 7.3

For addition or subtraction:

The Law of Constant Composition

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