1-1

no class next Wednesday

take home midterm on Wednesday due
following Monday
covers material thru today/Monday



1-2
Network layer functions
three important functions:
path determination: route
taken by packets from source
to dest. Routing algorithms
forwarding: move packets
from routers input to
appropriate router output
call setup: some network
architectures require router
call setup along path before
data flows


1-3
Network layer functions
three important functions:
path determination: route
taken by packets from
source to dest. Routing
algorithms
forwarding: move packets
from routers input to
appropriate router output
call setup: some network
architectures require router
call setup along path before
data flows


1-4
Routing
Graph abstraction for
routing algorithms:
graph nodes are
routers
graph edges are
physical links
link cost: delay, $ cost,
or congestion level
Goal: determine good path
(sequence of routers) thru
network from source to dest.
Routing protocol
A
E D
C B
F
2
2
1
3
1
1
2
5
3
5
good path:
typically means minimum
cost path
other defs possible
1-5
Routing Algorithm classification
Global or decentralized information?
Global:
all routers have complete topology, link cost info
link state algorithms (Dijkstra)

Decentralized:
router knows physically-connected neighbors, link costs to
neighbors
iterative process of computation, exchange of info with
neighbors
distance vector algorithms (Bellman Ford)
1-6
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
link state protocol
link costs between 0 and 65,535
Cisco recommendation - link cost = 1/(link capacity)
rapid, loop-free convergence, scales well
topology map at each node, route computation using
Dijkstras algorithm
OSPF advertisement carries one entry per neighbor
router, advertisements flooded to entire Autonomous
System
multiple equal-cost paths allowed: flow equally split
on all outgoing links belonging to shortest paths
IS IS (intermediate system-intermediate system)
similar
1-7
Routing vs Switching
routing: based on address lookup, max
prefix match
search operation
complexity O(logn) - 0(n)
switching: based on circuit numbers
indexing operation
complexity O(1)
scalable to large networks

MPLS
1-8
History: Ipsilons IP Switching

1-9
Ipsilons IP Switching
ATM VCs setup when new IP flows seen, I.e.,
data-driven VC setup
1-10
Issues with Ipsilons IP
switching
1-11
Tag Switching
Key difference: tags setup in background using
IP routing protocols (I.e. control-driven VC setup)
1-12
Alphabet Soup!
CSR Cell Switched Router
ISR Integrated Switch and Router
LSR Label Switching Router
TSR Tag Switching Router
Multi layer switches
Direct IP
FastIP
PowerIP

MPLS - IETF standard
1-13
MPLS Concept: Route at Edge, Switch
in Core
IP Forwarding
LABEL SWITCHING
IP Forwarding
IP IP #L1 IP #L2 IP #L3 IP
1-14
MPLS Terminology
LDP: Label Distribution Protocol
LSP: Label Switched Path
FEC: Forwarding Equivalence Class
LSR: Label Switching Router
LER: Label Edge Router (Useful term not in
standards)
MPLS multi-protocol both in terms of protocols
it supports ABOVE and BELOW in protocol stack!
1-15
MPLS Header
IP packet encapsulated in MPLS header
and sent down LSP




IP packet restored at end of LSP by
egress router
TTL adjusted by default

IP Packet
32-bit
MPLS Header
1-16
MPLS Header
label
used to match packet to LSP
experimental bits
carries packet queuing priority (CoS)
stacking bit: can build stacks of labels
qoal: nested tunnels!
time to live
copied from IP TTL
TTL Label EXP S
1-17
MPLS Forwarding: Example
IP packet destined to 134.112.1.5/32 arrives to SF
San Francisco has route for 134.112/16
next hop is LSP to New York

San
Francisco
New York IP
Santa Fe
134.112/16
134.112.1.5
1965
1026
0
1-18
MPLS Forwarding Example
San Francisco pre-pends MPLS header onto IP
packet, sends packet to first transit router on path
San
Francisco
New York
Santa Fe
134.112/16
1-19
MPLS Forwarding Example
because packet arrived to Santa Fe with
MPLS header, Santa Fe forwards it using
MPLS forwarding table
San
Francisco
New York
Santa Fe
134.112/16
1-20
MPLS Forwarding Example
packet arrives from penultimate router with label 0
egress router sees label 0, strips MPLS header
egress router performs standard IP forwarding
San
Francisco
New York
Santa Fe
IP
134.112/16
1-21
Regular IP Forwarding
47.1
47.2
47.3
IP 47.1.1.1
Dest Out
47.1 1
47.2 2
47.3 3
1
2
3
Dest Out
47.1 1
47.2 2
47.3 3
1
2
1
2
3
IP 47.1.1.1
IP 47.1.1.1
IP 47.1.1.1
Dest Out
47.1 1
47.2 2
47.3 3
IP destination address unchanged in packet header!
1-22
Intf
In
Label
In
Dest Intf
Out
3 0.40 47.1 1
Intf
In
Label
In
Dest Intf
Out
Label
Out
3 0.50 47.1 1 0.40
MPLS Label Distribution
47.1
47.2
47.3
1
2
3
1
2
1
2
3
3
Intf
In
Dest Intf
Out
Label
Out
3 47.1 1 0.50
Mapping: 0.40
Request: 47.1
1-23
Label Switched Path (LSP)
Intf
In
Label
In
Dest Intf
Out
3 0.40 47.1 1
Intf
In
Label
In
Dest Intf
Out
Label
Out
3 0.50 47.1 1 0.40
47.1
47.2
47.3
1
2
3
1
2
1
2
3
3
Intf
In
Dest Intf
Out
Label
Out
3 47.1 1 0.50
IP 47.1.1.1
IP 47.1.1.1
1-24
#216
#612
#5
#311
#14
#99
#963
#462
- Vanilla LSP actually part of tree from every source to
destination (unidirectional)
- Vanilla LDP builds tree using existing IP forwarding
tables to route control messages
#963
#14
#99
#311
#311
#311
A General Vanilla LSP
1-25
Forwarding Equivalence Classes
FEC - group of IP packets
forwarded over same path, with same
forwarding treatment
FEC may correspond to
destination IP subnet
source, destination IP subnet
QoS class

1-26
Example

1-27
Label Distribution Protocol (LDP)
label distribution always done from
downstream to upstream
downstream-unsolicited: new route => send
new label


downstream-on-demand: upstream LSR
asks for label

1-28
Traffic Engineering
configuring routes to traffic demands so as
to
improve user performance
use network resources more efficiently
operates at coarse timescales
not for failures, sudden traffic changes
uses shortest path computations
OSPF, MPLS
Q: how to set link weights?

1-29
Effect of link weights
unit link weights
local change to congested link
global optimization
to balance link utilizations
1-30
Traffic Engineering Framework
knowledge of topology
traffic matrix
K set of origin destination flows
k eK, d
k
demand, s
k
source, t
k
destination
how to get traffic matrix?
SNMP
edge measurements + routing tables
network tomography
packet sampling
optimization criteria
minimize maximum utilization
keep utilizations below 60%
1-31
How does one set link weights?
1-32
Digression linear programming
1-33
m j x
n i b x a
x c
j
i j i,j
j i
, , 1 , 0
, , 1 ,

= >
= =

j
i
to subject
minimize
Linear program
polynomial time solution in n,m
1-34
Example: optimal routes
topology G = (V,E)
K set of origin destination flows
k eK, d
k
demand, s
k
source, t
k
destination
set of given link weights {w
ij
: (i,j) eE }
fraction of flow k going over (i,j) eE
0
, 1
,
, 0 . .
min
) , ( :
) , ( : ) , ( :
) , (
>
=
e
=
=
e
=

e
e e
e e
k
ij
k
E j i j
k
ij
k k
E i j j
k
ji
E j i j
k
ij
K k E j i
k
ij ij
X
s i
K k
X
t s i
K k
X X t s
X w
k
ij
X
1-35

1-36
Example
decomposes into separate problems per
flow k eK
0
, 1
, , 0 . .
min
) , ( :
) , ( : ) , ( :
) , (
>
= =
= =

e
e e
e
k
ij
k
E j i j
k
ij
k k
E i j j
k
ji
E j i j
k
ij
E j i
k
ij ij
X
s i X
t s i X X t s
X w
1-37
Interpretation
let be optimal solutions

if takes values 0 and 1, corresponds
to shortest paths

if takes other values, there exist
multiple shortest paths.
{ }
k
ij
X
{ }
k
ij
X
{ }
k
ij
X
1-38
Linear Program
x
0
is feasible if Ax
0
= b and x
0
> 0
m j x
n i b x a
x c
j
i j i,j
j i
, , 1 , 0
, , 1 , subject to
minimize
j
i

= >
= =

, 0
subject to
minimize
>
=
x
b Ax
x c
T

1-39
Dual problem.
if {x
i
} and {y
i
} are optimal, then the
objective functions are equal
T T
T
c A y
b y
s subject to
maximize

=
i i
i i
* *
x c b y
i i
, 0
subject to
minimize
>
=
x
b Ax
x c
T
1-40
Dual problem: properties.
if x and y are feasible, then c
T
x > y
T
b
if x and y are feasible and if c
T
x > y
T
b,
then x and y are optimal
if either problem has finite solution, so
does other, if either has unbounded
solution, so does other
1-41
Complementary slackness.
Let x and y be feasible solutions. A necessary
and sufficient condition for them to be
optimal is that for all i
1. x
i
> 0 y
T
A
i
= c
i
2. x
i
= 0 : y
T
A
i
< c
i


Here A
i
is i-th column of A

1-42
Example: primal (P-SP)

0
, 1
,
, 0 . .
min
) , ( :
) , ( : ) , ( :
) , (
>
=
e
=
=
e
=

e
e e
e e
k
ij
k
E j i j
k
ij
k k
E i j j
k
ji
E j i j
k
ij
K k E j i
k
ij ij
X
s i
K k
X
t s i
K k
X X t s
X w
1-43
Example: dual (D-SP)









K k U
E j i
K k
w U U t s
U
k
s
ij
k
i
k
j
K k
k
t
k
k
e =
e
e
s

e
, 0
) , (
, . .
max
1-44
Example
optimal solution to dual problem
shortest distance from s
k
to i
length of shortest path from s
k
to t
k
{ }
k
i
U
K k U
E j i
K k
w U U t s
U
k
s
ij
k
i
k
j
K k
k
t
k
k
e =
e
e
s

e
, 0
) , (
, . .
max
k
i
U
k
t
k
U
1-45
Optimal route selection