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Objectives of presentation
• Definition of sampling
• Why do we use samples?
• Concept of representativeness
• Main methods of sampling
• Sampling error
• Sample size calculation
Definition of sampling
• Sampling unit
– Subject under observation on which information is
collected
• Sampling fraction
– Ratio between the sample size and the population
size
• Sampling frame
– Any list of all the sampling units in the population
• Sampling scheme
– Method of selecting sampling units from sampling
frame
Why do we use samples ?
Precision
Cost
What we need to know
• Concepts
– Representativeness
– Sampling methods
– Choice of the right design
• Calculations
– Sampling error
– Design effect
– Sample size
Sampling and representativeness
Sampling
Population
Sample
Target Population
• Non-probability samples
• Probability samples
Non probability samples
• Quotas
• Sample reflects population structure
• Time/resources constraints
• Random sampling
• Each subject has a known probability of
being chosen
• Reduces possibility of selection bias
• Allows application of statistical theory to
results
Sampling error
• No sample is the exact mirror image of
the population
• Magnitude of error can be measured in
probability samples
• Expressed by standard error
– of mean, proportion, differences, etc
• Function of
– amount of variability in measuring factor of
interest
– sample size
Methods used in probability samples
Perceptions and
inferences
Selectivity and frame of reference
Social phenomena dispersed
temporally and spatially
Emotional entanglements of
observer
Observers anxiety
Sensitizing effect by observer
Validity of theoritical
interpretation
Increasing reliability/validity of PRA
Proper definition,
Conceptualisation,&
Operationalisation of indicators
Increase confidence in judgement
Improve training and practice in
pra
Reduce categories (not more than
50)
Explanation of categories and
rules for its use
Aids for observation
Diary
Note down key words to write a
full report
Write details during each phase of
field work
Reanalyse and categorise the
notes/points daily
Use sociometry /social /other maps
as aids
Use camera/video/
Tape recorder
Kendall’s coe-fficient of concordance (W)
s
W= ------------------
1
---- X k2(N3-N) -k∑ T
12
s=(Rj-MeanRj)2.....sum of squared deviations from
mean of ranks judged by ‘k’ judges on ‘N’
indicators
∑ Rj
Mean Rj= -------
N
∑ (t3-t)
T= .................
12
> 30 INDICATORS USE ‘Z’
APPROXIMATION
RELIABILITY
A criterion is stable or
reproducible
Reliability contributes to
validity
Reliable instrument need not be
valid
CHARECTERISTICS
5.Stability :
6.Dependability:
7.Accuracy
8.Least error of measurement
9.Equivalence:
Reliability = True variance St2
Total variance S2
X= Xt ± Xe
S2 = St2 ± Se2
(divide throughout by S2)
1= St2 ± Se 2
S2 S2
Validity
Internal validity = epistemic
correlation betn TD & OD
Type I Type III
TypeII
External validity:
generalizability to
populations
Criterion related validity
•Relevance
•Bias free
•Reliability
•Availability
Quality of an estimate
Random Systematic
error ! error (Bias) !
Simple random sampling
• Principle
– Equal chance of drawing each unit
• Procedure
– Number all units
– Randomly draw units
Simple random sampling
• Advantages
– Simple
– Sampling error easily measured
• Disadvantages
– Need complete list of units
– Does not always achieve best
representativeness
– Units may be scattered
Simple random sampling
Example: evaluate the prevalence of tooth
decay among the 1200 children attending a
school
• N = 1200, and n = 60
⇒ sampling fraction = 1200/60 = 20
• List persons from 1 to 1200
• Randomly select a number between 1 and
20 (ex : 8)
⇒ 1st person selected = the 8th on the
list
⇒ 2nd person = 8 + 20 = the 28th
etc .....
Systematic sampling
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 ……..
Systematic sampling
Example: systematic sampling
Stratified sampling
• Principle :
Principle
• = consecutive samplings
• example :
sampling unit = household
Section 3
Section 5
Section 4
Cluster sampling
• Advantages
– Simple as complete list of sampling units
within population not required
– Less travel/resources required
• Disadvantages
– Imprecise if clusters homogeneous and
therefore sample variation greater than
population variation (large design effect)
– Sampling error difficult to measure
EPI cluster sampling
A 1600 IIII
Then compute sampling fraction :
B 1820 I
K= 9820 = 327 C 5020 IIIIIIIIII
30
Draw a random number (between 1 D 5420 I
and 327) E 6220 II
F 6420 I
Example: 62 G 7620 IIII
H 7820 I
Start from the village including “62” I 9420 IIIII
and draw the clusters adding the
J 9820 I
sampling fraction
Drawing households and children
On the spot
p(1-p) Σ (pi-p)²
Var srs = ---------- Var clus = -------------
n k(k-1)
Var clust
Design effect = ------------------
Var srs
p= global proportion
pi= proportion in each stratum
n= number of subjects
k= number of strata
srs= simple random sampling
EPITABLE: Calculating design effect
Selecting a sampling method
• Population to be studied
– Size/geographical distribution
– Heterogeneity with respect to variable
• Level of precision required
• Resources available
• Importance of having a precise estimate
of the sampling error
Steps in estimating sample size
• Identify major study variable
• Determine type of estimate (%, mean, ratio,...)
• Indicate expected frequency of factor of interest
• Decide on desired precision of the estimate
• Decide on acceptable risk that estimate will fall outside
its real population value
• Adjust for estimated design effect
• Adjust for expected response rate
• (Adjust for population size? In case of small size
population only)
Sample size formula in
descriptive survey
Simple random / systematic sampling
z² * p * q 1.96²*0.15*0.85
n = -------------- ---------------------- = 544
d² 0.03²
Cluster sampling
z² * p * q 2*1.96²*0.15*0.85
n = g* -------------- ------------------------ = 1088
d² 0.03²
• If in doubt…