Guide To TCP/IP, Second Edition

Chapter 2
IP Addressing And Related Topics

Guide To TCP/IP, Second Edition

Objectives
Understand IP addressing, anatomy and structures, and addresses from a computers point of view Recognize and describe the various IP address classes from A to E, and explain how theyre composed and used Understand the nature of IP address limitations, and how techniques like Classless Inter-Domain Routing and Network Address Translation ease those limitations
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Objectives (cont.)
Define the terms subnet and supernet, and apply your knowledge of how subnets and supernets work to solve specific network design problems Understand how public and private Internet addresses are assigned, how to obtain them, and how to use them properly Recognize the importance and value of an IP addressing scheme
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IP Addressing Basics
Computers deal with network addresses in the form of bit patterns IP uses a three-part addressing scheme
Symbolic: Example support.dell.com Logical numeric: Example 172.16.1.10 Physical numeric: Consists of a 6-byte numeric address, burned into firmware (on a chip) by network interface manufacturers
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IP Addressing Basics (cont.)

Data Link Sublayers Layers
Media Access Control (MAC) Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer

At the Data Link layer, a network interface transfers frames, using MAC addresses, to another network interface only on the same physical or local network At the Network layer, the senders address and the ultimate recipients address is in the IP packet header
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Anatomy Of An IP Address
IP addresses use dotted decimal notation IP Addresses take the form n.n.n.n, where n is guaranteed to be between 0 and 255 Each number is an 8-bit number that is called an octet

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IP Address Classes
IP addresses are further subdivided into five classes, from Class A to Class E First three classes of addresses (A thru C), divide the octets as follows
Class A n. h.h.h Class B n.n. h.h Class C n.n.n. h
n = Network, h = Hosts
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IP Address Classes (cont.)

Address Classes D and E are for special uses
Class D addresses are used for multicast communications Class E addresses are reserved entirely for experimental use

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More About Class A Addresses

Expressed in binary form, Class A addresses always take the following binary form:
0bbbbbbb.bbbbbbbb.bbbbbbbb.bbbbbbbb b = 1 or 0 00000000 thru 01111111 for first octet Addresses consisting of all 0s and all 1s, for the variable b, are reserved for special uses
Network ID and Broadcast Address

Address 127.n.n.n is reserved for loopback testing

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Class A Address Facts And Figures

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More About Class B Addresses

Class B addresses always take the following binary form:
10bbbbbb.bbbbbbbb.bbbbbbbb.bbbbbbbb

b = 1 or 0 10000000 thru 10111111 for first octet Addresses consisting of all 0s and all 1s, for the variable b, are reserved for special uses
Network ID and Broadcast Address
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Class B Address Facts And Figures

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More About Class C Addresses

Class C addresses always take the following binary form
110bbbbb.bbbbbbbb.bbbbbbbb.bbbbbbbb b = 1 or 0 11000000 thru 11011111 for first octet Addresses consisting of all 0s and all 1s, for the variable b, are reserved for special uses
Network ID and Broadcast Address
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Class C Address Facts And Figures

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More About Address Classes D And E

Class D addresses always take the following binary form:
1110bbbb.bbbbbbbb.bbbbbbbb.bbbbbbbb b = 1 or 0 11100000 thru 11101111 for first octet

Class E addresses always take the following binary form:

11110bbb.bbbbbbbb.bbbbbbbb.bbbbbbbb b = 1 or 0 11110000 thru 11110111 for first octet
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Network, Broadcast, Multicast, And Other Special IP Addresses

Network addresses cannot identify a particular host on a network
Network addresses have all 0s in the host bit positions

Broadcast Address is the address that all hosts on a network must read
Broadcast addresses have all 1s in the host bit positions

Broadcast Frame and Packet Structures

Network Packet Broadcast 255.255.255.255 Data Link Frame Broadcast 0xFF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF

Multicast packet and address structures

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Multicast And Other Special IP Addresses (cont.)

Host uses a service that employs a multicast address Host registers itself to listen on that address Data Link layer destination address is based on the Network layer multicast address

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Broadcast Packet Example

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Multicast Packet Example

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Data Link MAC Conversion

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Vanishing IP Address Space

Mid-1990s experts began to predict that the Internet would run out of available IP addresses Address space saving techniques
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) Trade in existing IP network addresses ($) RFC 1918 private IP addresses range Network Address Translation (NAT) lets networks use private IP addresses internally and maps them to public IP address externally
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Understanding Basic Binary Arithmetic

Binary equivalents
0000 (0), 0001 (1), 0010 (2), 0011 (3) 0100 (4), 0101 (5), 0110 (6), 0111 (7) 1000 (8), 1001 (9), 1010 (10), 1011 (11) 1100 (12), 1101 (13), 1110 (14), 1111 (15)

Converting decimal to binary

Division or subtraction methods

Converting binary to decimal

Add powers of 2 for each bit placement
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Understanding Basic Binary Arithmetic (cont.)

High-Order bit patterns
Left most bits of an octet
11000000

Low-Order bit patterns

Right most bits of an octet
00000011

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IP Networks, Subnets, And Masks

Class A, B, and C default masks
a mask is a special bit pattern that identifies the network portion of an IP address network prefix extended network prefix

IP subnets and supernets

Network addresses are further subdivided beyond their defaults with subnet masks stealing bits from the host portion, this is called subnetting Supernetting combines contiguous network addresses
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IP Networks, Subnets, And Masks (cont.)

Calculating subnet masks
2b 2 = (the number of usable subnets) Constant-Length Subnet Mask (CLSM)
Subnetting into multiple equal segments Each subnet includes the same number of stations

Variable-Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)

Subnetting into multiple unequal segments Each subnet may not have the same number of stations

Calculating supernets
Supernets steal bits from the network portion of an IP address to lend those bits to the host
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Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)

Ignores the traditional A, B, and C class designations for IP addresses Allows IP addresses from Class A, B, or C to be combined as a larger address space CIDR limitations:
Network address must be contiguous Routers in the routing domain must understand CIDR notation
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Public Versus Private IP Addresses

Private IP addresses:
RFC 1918 designates specific addresses for use as private IP addresses Private IP addresses are not routed across the public Internet

Public IP addresses:
Used when identifying servers or services that must be accessible to the Internet Assigned to routers, proxy servers, firewalls, web servers, e-mail servers, FTP servers, and news servers
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Private Address Ranges

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Managing Access To IP Address Information

IP security Private IP addresses and NAT Proxy server Reverse proxy

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Obtaining Public IP Addresses

Public IP addresses issued by ISPs ICANN manages all
IP-related addresses Protocol numbers well-known port addresses assigns MAC layer addresses

www.icann.org
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IP Addressing Schemes
The Network space
Number of physical locations Number of network devices at each location Amount of broadcast traffic at each location
IP network is a broadcast domain Routing (instead of bridging) is done to prevent unnecessary broadcasts from clogging expensive WAN circuits 2

Availability of IP addresses
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IP Addressing Schemes (cont.)

The Network space (cont.)
Delay caused by routing from one network to another
Size of the routing tables Time required for the network to converge Route aggregation or summary addresses

The Host space

Assign IP addresses based function (.1-.6 network devices)(.9-.14 servers)
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Chapter Summary
IP addresses provide the foundation for identifying individual network interfaces (and therefore computers or other devices as well) on TCP/IP networks Understanding address structures, restrictions, and behavior is essential to designing TCP/IP networks and appreciating how existing TCP/IP networks are organized IP addresses come in five classes named A through E
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Chapter Summary (cont.)

Classes A through C use the IPv4 32-bit address to establish different break points between the network and host portions of such network addresses Class A uses a single octet for the network address and three octets for the host address; Class B uses two octets each for network and host portions; and Class C uses three octets for the network portion and one octet for the host portion
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Chapter Summary (cont.)

Thus, only a few (124) Class A networks exist, but each can support more than 16,000,000 hosts; numerous (over 16,000) Class B networks exist, and each can support around 65,000 hosts; finally, approximately 2,000,000 Class C networks exist, each with only 254 hosts per network Understanding binary arithmetic is essential to knowing how to deal with IP addresses, particularly when working with subnet masks
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Chapter Summary (cont.)

Knowing how to convert from decimal to binary, and vice versa, helps you understand how the concept of stealing bits from the host portion of an IP address permits a network to be subdivided into logical subnetworks, or subnets Likewise, it helps you understand how stealing bits from the network portion of multiple contiguous IP addresses increases the number of addressable hosts To help ease address scarcity, the IETF created a form of classless addressing called Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) that permits the network-host boundary to fall away from octet boundaries
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Chapter Summary (cont.)

CIDR is best used to aggregate multiple Class C addresses to decrease the number of networks, while increasing the total number of addressable hosts This technique is called supernetting Likewise, to make best use of IP network addresses, a technique called subnetting permits additional bits to be taken from the host portion of a network Recognizing the following bit patterns (decimal values follow in parentheses) helps when calculating or examining subnet masks: 11000000 (192), 11100000 (224), 11110000 (240), 11111000 (248), and 11111100 (252)
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Chapter Summary (cont.)

Several techniques exist to hide internal network IP addresses from outside view, including address masquerading and address substitution These techniques replace the actual internal network address from the source field in the IP header with a different value that reveals nothing about the actual address structure of the originating network Either Network Address Translation software or a proxy server usually handles this kind of task Within the Class A, B, and C IP address ranges, the IETF has reserved private IP addresses or address ranges
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Chapter Summary (cont.)

Any organization may use these private IP addresses without charge and without obtaining prior permission, but private IP addresses may not be routed across the public Internet Another important job for Network Address Translation software, in fact, is to map a range of private IP addresses to a single public IP address to permit computers that use private IP addresses to obtain Internet access
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Chapter Summary (cont.)

When it comes to obtaining public IP addresses, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN; previously the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, or IANA, handled this task) is the ultimate authority Today, unassigned public IP addresses are extremely scarce and therefore unlikely to be allocated to most ordinary organizations In fact, most IP address assignments come from ISPs that subdivide already assigned Class A, B, or C addresses to assign public IP addresses to their customers
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