THE CELL

Function of the cell A. Serves as the structural building block to form tissues and organs B. Each cell is functionally independent- it can live on its own under the right conditions 1. it can define its boundaries and protect itself from external changes causing internal changes 2. it can use sugars to derive energy for different processes which keep it alive

 3. it contains all the information required for replicating itself and interacting with other cells in order to produce a multicellular organism 4. It is even possible to reproduce the entire plant from almost any single cell of the plant

TYPES OF CELLS
A. Prokaryotic cells- eg. bacteria 1. very simple-there are no organelles and most everything functions in the cytoplasm

B. Eukaryotic cells 1. all contain the organelles that of the cell 2. includes unicellular algae and protists (e.g. ameba) that live alone or in colonies 3. includes multicellular organisms - animals, plants, fungi - where cells work together a. plant cells are unlike animal cells in that plant cells have chloroplasts and cell walls. Animal cells have neither of these. Plant cells also have relatively large vacuoles.

Parts of the eukaryotic cell

A. Outside (boundary) of the cell 1. cell wall a. protects and supports cell b. made from carbohydratescellulose and pectin- polysaccharides c. strong but leaky- lets water and chemicals pass through- analogous to a cardboard box

 The main chemical components of the primary plant cell wall include cellulose (in the form of organized microfibrils), a complex carbohydrate made up of several thousand glucose molecules linked end to end. In addition, the cell wall contains two groups of branched polysaccharides, the pectins and cross-linking glycans.

 Organized into a network with the cellulose microfibrils, the cross-linking glycans increase the tensile strength of the cellulose, whereas the coextensive network of pectins provides the cell wall with the ability to resist compression. In addition to these networks, a small amount of protein can be found in all plant primary cell walls.

 Some of this protein is thought to increase mechanical strength and part of it consists of enzymes, which initiate reactions that form, remodel, or breakdown the structural networks of the wall. Such changes in the cell wall directed by enzymes are particularly important for fruit to ripen and leaves to fall in autumn.

 The secondary plant cell wall, which is often deposited inside the primary cell wall as a cell matures, sometimes has a composition nearly identical to that of the earlier-developed wall. More commonly, however, additional substances, especially lignin, are found in the secondary wall. Lignin is the general name for a group of polymers of aromatic alcohols that are hard and impart considerable strength to the structure of the secondary wall.

 Lignin is what provides the favorable characteristics of wood to the fiber cells of woody tissues and is also common in the secondary walls of xylem vessels, which are central in providing structural support to plants. Lignin also makes plant cell walls less vulnerable to attack by fungi or bacteria, as do cutin, suberin, and other waxy materials that are sometimes found in plant cell walls.

A specialized region associated with the cell walls of plants, and sometimes considered an additional component of them, is the middle lamella. Rich in pectins, the middle lamella is shared by neighboring cells and cements them firmly together. Positioned in such a manner, cells are able to communicate with one another and share their contents through special conduits termed plasmodesmata.

Cell membrane
2 primary building blocks include protein (about 60% of the membrane) and lipid, or fat (about 40% of the membrane). The membranes that surround the nucleus and other organelles are almost identical to the cell membrane The primary lipid is called phospholipid, and molecules of phospholipid form a 'phospholipid bilayer

 The phospholipids are arranged in a bilayer, with their polar, hydrophilic phosphate heads facing outwards, and their non-polar, hydrophobic fatty acid tails facing each other in the middle of the bilayer. This hydrophobic layer acts as a barrier to all but the smallest molecules, effectively isolating the two sides of the membrane..

 Different kinds of membranes can contain phospholipids with different fatty acids, affecting the strength and flexibility of the membrane, and animal cell membranes also contain cholesterol linking the fatty acids together and so stabilising and strengthening the membrane

 The proteins usually span from one side of the phospholipid bilayer to the other (integral proteins), but can also sit on one of the surfaces (peripheral proteins). They can slide around the membrane very quickly and collide with each other, but can never flip from one side to the other.

 The proteins have hydrophilic amino acids in contact with the water on the outside of membranes, and hydrophobic amino acids in contact with the fatty chains inside the membrane. Proteins comprise about 50% of the mass of membranes, and are responsible for most of the membrane's properties.

 Proteins that span the membrane are usually involved in transporting substances across the membrane (more details below). Proteins on the inside surface of cell membranes are often attached to the cytoskeleton and are involved in maintaining the cell's shape, or in cell motility. They may also be enzymes, catalysing reactions in the cytoplasm.

 Proteins on the outside surface of cell membranes can act as receptors by having a specific binding site where hormones or other chemicals can bind. This binding then triggers other events in the cell. They may also be involved in cell signalling and cell recognition, or they may be enzymes, such as maltase in the small intestine (more in digestion).

 The carbohydrates are found on the outer surface of all eukaryotic cell membranes, and are attached to the membrane proteins or sometimes to the phospholipids. Proteins with carbohydrates attached are called glycoproteins, while phospholipids with carbohydrates attached are called glycolipids.

 The carbohydrates are short polysaccharides composed of a variety of different monosaccharides, and form a cell coat or glycocalyx outside the cell membrane. The glycocalyx is involved in protection and cell recognition, and antigens such as the ABO antigens on blood cells are usually cell-surface glycoproteins.

Functions include: supporting and retaining the cytoplasm being a selective barrier Some molecules can cross the membrane without assistance, most cannot. Water, non-polar molecules and some small polar molecules can cross. Non-polar molecules penetrate by actually dissolving into the lipid bilayer.

 Most polar compounds such as amino acids, organic acids and inorganic salts are not allowed entry, but instead must be specifically transported across the membrane by proteins.

transport Many of the proteins in the membrane function to help carry out selective transport. These proteins typically span the whole membrane, making contact with the outside environment and the cytoplasm. They often require the expenditure of energy to help compounds move across the membrane

 communication (via receptors) RECOGNITION Every body cell carries distinctive molecules that distinguish it as "self." Normally the body's immune system does not attack tissues that carry a self marker; rather, immune cells coexist peaceably with other body cells in a state known as self-tolerance

Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm consists of a gelatinous solution and contains microtubules (which serve as a cell's cytoskeleton) and organelles.

The cyotoskeleton represents the cell's skeleton. Like the bony skeletons that give us stability, the cytoskeleton gives our cells shape, strength, and the ability to move, but it does much more than that.

 The cytoskeleton is made up of three types of fibers that constantly shrink and grow to meet the needs of the cell: microtubules, microfilaments, and actin filaments. Each type of fiber looks, feels, and functions differently. Microtubules consists of a strong protein called tubulin and they give structural support to the cytoskeleton.

 They do the tough physical labor of separating duplicate chromosomes when cells copy themselves and serve as sturdy railway tracks on which countless molecules and materials shuttle to and fro. They also hold the ER and Golgi neatly in stacks and form the main component of flagella and cilia.

 Microfilaments are unusual because they vary greatly according to their location and function in the body. For example, some microfilaments form tough coverings, such as in nails, hair, and the outer layer of skin (not to mention animal claws and scales). Actin filament: Actin is a globular, protein found in all eukaryotic cells (the only known exception being nematode sperm). It forms part of the contractile apparatus in muscle cells

 Cells also contain a nucleus within which is found DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) in the form of chromatin (or chromosomes during cell division) plus nucleoli (within which ribosomes are formed). The function of the nucleus is to maintain the integrity of these genes and to control the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression the nucleus is, therefore, the control center of the cell.

 The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, a triple cell membrane that encloses the entire organelle. The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), and is similarly studded with ribosomes. nucleoskeleton which is a meshwork within the nucleus that adds mechanical support,

 Nuclear pores, which provide aqueous channels through the envelope, are composed of multiple proteins, collectively referred to as nucleoporins. These pores allow the passage of small water-soluble molecules while preventing larger molecules, such as nucleic acids and larger proteins, from inappropriately entering or exiting the nucleus. These large molecules must be actively transported into the nucleus instead.

 The nucleolus is a discrete densely stained structure found in the nucleus. The main roles of the nucleolus are to synthesize rRNA and assemble ribosomes.

 Organelles include: Endoplasmic reticulum Organized stacks of disc-like compartments from the periphery of the nucleus towards the cells periphery. comes in 2 forms: smooth and rough; the surface of rough ER is coated with ribosomes; the surface of smooth ER is not functions include: mechanical support, synthesis (especially proteins by rough ER), and transport .

 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a special membrane structure found only in eukaryotic cells. Some ER has ribosomes on the surface (rough endoplasmic reticulum) --the cell's protein-making machinery. Proteins that require special conditions or are destined to become part of the cell membrane are processed in the ER and then handed off to another organelle called the Golgi apparatus.

 The Golgi functions as a cellular post office. Proteins that arrive there are sorted, packaged and transported to various destinations in the cell. Scientists are studying many aspects of the ER and Golgi apparatus, including a builtin quality control mechanism cells use to ensure that proteins are properly made before leaving the ER

Golgi apparatus consists of a series of flattened sacs (or cisternae) functions include: synthesis (of substances likes phospholipids), packaging of materials for transport (in vesicles), and production of lysosomes

Lysosomes membrane-enclosed spheres that contain powerful digestive enzymes functions include destruction of damaged cells (which is why they are sometimes called 'suicide bags') & digestion of phagocytosed materials (such as bacteria)

Mitochondria primary function is production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) have a double-membrane: outer membrane & highly convoluted inner membrane inner membrane has folds or shelf-like structures called cristae that contain elementary particles; these particles represent an enzyme important in ATP production

 The double membranes divide the mitochondrion into two distinct parts: the intermembrane space and the mitochondrial matrix. The intermembrane space is the narrow part between the two membranes while the mitochondrial matrix is the part enclosed by the innermost membrane. Several of the steps in cellular respiration occur in the matrix due to its high concentration of enzymes.

 Mitochondria are found exclusively in eukaryotic cells. These organelles are often called the "power plants" of the cell because their main job is to make energy (ATP). Mitochondria are highly unusual--they contain their own genetic material and proteinmaking machinery. Many scientists believe mitochondria were once free-living bacteria that colonized complex cells sometime during evolution.

Ribosomes composed of rRNA (ribosomal RNA) & protein may be dispersed randomly throughout the cytoplasm or attached to surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum often linked together in chains called polyribosomes or polysomes primary function is to produce proteins

 Each ribosome consists of two sub units. The sub units occur separately in the cytoplasm and join to form a ribosome particle only at the time of protein synthesis. The 70s ribosome has two sub units of 30s and 50s. The 80s ribosome has two subunits of 60s and 40s.

Centrioles play an important role in cell division paired cylindrical structures located near the nucleus Under the electron microscope the centrioles appear as two short, hollow, cylinders usually lying at right angles to each other. Each centriole is made up of nine microtubule triplets, which lie evenly spaced in a ring. There are no microtubules in the center (9+0 arrangement).

Flagella & cilia cilia are relatively short & numerous (e.g., those lining trachea) a flagellum is relatively long and there's typically just one (e.g., sperm) They are similar in their structure, chemical composition and function. Both serve to propel the organism or move a medium past a fixed cell. However, they differ in their size, number and mode of beating. The basal bodies, also called basal granules, are structures, which bear cilia and flagella. They exhibit a structure, which is exactly similar to a centriole.

Villi - projections of cell membrane that serve to increase surface area of a cell (which is important, for example, for cells that line the intestine

 The DNA stored in the nucleus of a single human cell spans over six feet in length if stretched from end to end. Made up of four chemical building blocks called A, C, T and G, for short, DNA contains the instructions for making all living things. The building blocks link to form the molecule's famous "double helix" structure, which allows genetic information to be copied and passed down from one generation to the next.

 Occasionally exposure to toxins or malfunction of cellular processes, among other things, does cause copying mistakes. Such changes over long time periods provide opportunities for organisms to adapt to new surroundings--or, cause them to die out. Discrete segments of DNA, called genes, encode the instructions for making proteins. Work horses of the cell, proteins serve as structural material, hormones, enzymes and neurotransmitters as well as play many other roles.

 DNA

Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are one of several different types of plastids, plant cell organelles that are involved in energy storage and the synthesis of metabolic materials. The colorless leucoplasts, for instance, are involved in the synthesis of starch, oils, and proteins.

 Yellow-to-red colored chromoplasts manufacture carotenoids, and the green colored chloroplasts contain the pigments chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, which are able to absorb the light energy needed for photosynthesis to occur.

 Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and other eukaryotic organisms that conduct photosynthesis. Chloroplasts capture light energy to conserve free energy in the form of ATP and reduce NADP to NADPH through a complex set of processes called photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are green because they contain the pigment chlorophyll.

 Chloroplasts are observable as flat discs The chloroplast is contained by an envelope that consists of an inner and an outer phospholipid membrane. Between these two layers is the intermembrane space. A typical parenchyma cell contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts

 The outer layer of the double membrane is much more permeable than the inner layer, which features a number of embedded membrane transport proteins. Enclosed by the chloroplast membrane is the stroma, a semi-fluid material that contains dissolved enzymes and comprises most of the chloroplast's volume.

 Chloroplasts possess their own DNA so the stroma contains chloroplast DNA and special ribosomes and RNAs as well. In higher plants, lamellae, internal membranes with stacks (each termed a granum) of closed hollow disks called thylakoids, are also usually dispersed throughout the stroma. The numerous thylakoids in each stack are thought to be connected via their lumens (internal spaces).