Movement of substances across plasma membrane

PREPARED BY : THARSINI SALYAM

 Living organisms can survive if: - Metabolic activities in the cells are able to take place properly - Internal environment is well maintained 2types of metabolic activities (a) Anabolism : simple complex molecules - Essential for production of new enzymes,proteins and tissues; for growth, maintainance and tissue repair (a) Catabolism : breaking complex molecules simple - Mainly for energy production

Substances that move into and move out of the cells and its importance
GLUCOSE Production of energy through cellular respiration Production of proteins such as enzymes and antibodies Production of energy and synthesis of cellular structure Coenzymes which are required for cell metabolism Reaction medium for most of the biochemical reactions One of the substrate for cellular respiration

AMINO ACIDS

FATS VITAMINS AND MINERAL

WATER

OXYGEN

 Cells too need to get rid of substances that are in excess/not needed at all O
2

O2

O2

Waste product of respiration eg? - Not needed and must be eliminated

Waste product from breakdown of excess proteins(urea,uric acid ammonia) Not needed and must be eliminated

Waste product of photosynthesis eg? - Used for respiration of other organisms

Secretions : extracellular enzymes, hormones and neurotransmitters secreted by particular cells Must be able to get out of the cell to carry out functions on other cells

Carbohydrate of glycoprotein

Structure of the plasma membrane

Glycoprotein Glycolipid

Integrin

Phospholipid Microfilaments of cytoskeleton Cholesterol

Membrane Structure
Phospholipids are the major structural Phospholipid component of membranes.
A phospholipid consist of a phosphate group, forming the polar part of the molecule, which is readily soluble in water. The lower parts phospholipid molecules are the two fatty acid chains, insoluble in water

Membrane Structure
All membranes are phospholipid bilayers with embedded proteins.
Label the:
Hydrophilic heads :
arranged to face aquoes environment of both extracellular and intracellular

Phospholipid Bilayer

Hydrophobic tails

: arranged to face each

other in the middle of the membrane, away from the environment

 Embedded in the bilayer are proteins

Most of the membranes functions are accomplished by the embedded proteins.
Integral proteins span the membrane Peripheral proteins are on one side or the other of the membrane

Pore/channel protein
proteins that form aqueous pores spanning the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane, which allow certain water soluble solutes to transverse the membrane when open

Carrier /transporter protein

proteins that transport a specific substance / group of substances across plasma membrane (a) Facilitated diffusion (b) Active transport They have binding sites for molecules to be transported

 Glycoproteins (C+P+G.L) found on surface of cell : for cells to recognize each other
Cholesterol molecules, insert themselves into phospholipid bilayer with its polar hydroxyl group close to the phospholipid head groups

Permeability of plasma membrane

Diffusion : passive movement of molecules down the concentration gradient If a barrier is placed in a container filled with a solution: diffusion will be restricted If barrier is permeable, diffusion can still take place but at lower rate. Movement is still passive, by concentration gradient If barrier is impermeable, molecules cannot move across Plasma membrane: is semi permeable, allow only certain molecules/ions to pass through simple diffusion

Factors affecting permeability

Sizes of molecules/ions Polarities

Rate of passage
Pressure Molecules / solutes Concentration Temperature Permeability of plasma membrane

 Due to hydrophobic core of the bilayer, plasma membrane is only permeable - Small hydrophobic solutes fatty acids.glycerol, steroids and fat soluble vit (ADEK) - Respiratory gases - Water as it is small

X pass through : large molecules: glucose,

amino acids,water soluble vit So transported by ?? - Facilitate diffusion / active transport

SIMPLE DIFFUSION

PASSIVE
FACILITATED DIFFUSION MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCE ACROSS MEMBRANE OSMOSIS

ACTIVE

Types of Transport Across Cell Membranes

Three Forms of Transport Across the Membrane

16

Simple Diffusion
Requires NO energy Molecules move from area of HIGH to LOW concentration along concentration gradient

DIFFUSION
Diffusion is a PASSIVE process which means no energy is used to make the molecules move, they have a natural KINETIC ENERGY Substance must be able to penetrate the hydrophobic core of lipid bilayer

Diffusion of Liquids

copyright cmassengale

19

Diffusion through a Membrane

Cell membrane
DOWN concentration gradient (HIGH to LOW)

 Rate of diffusion - Concentration gradient, the steeper the [ } gradient the higer the rate of diffusion - Surface area : the greater surface area the higer the rate of difussion - Distance over which diffusion takes place : the smaller the distance, the higher the rate

Passive Transport
Facilitated diffusion

Doesnt require energy

Uses transport proteins to move high to low concentration Examples: Glucose or amino acids moving from blood into a cell.

Facilitated Diffusion
Molecules will randomly move through the pores in Channel Proteins.

copyright cmassengale

Facilitated Diffusion
Some Carrier proteins do not extend through the membrane. They bond and drag molecules through the lipid bilayer and release them on the opposite side.

Carrier Proteins
Other carrier proteins change shape to move materials across the cell membrane

Osmosis
Diffusion of water across a membrane Moves from HIGH water potential (low solute) to LOW water potential (high solute)
Diffusion across a membrane

Semipermeable membrane

Diffusion of H2O Across A Membrane

High H2O potential Low solute concentration

Low H2O potential 27 High solute concentration

Active Transport
Requires energy or ATP Moves materials from LOW to HIGH concentration AGAINST concentration gradient

Active transport
Examples: Pumping Na+ (sodium ions) out and K+ (potassium ions) in against strong concentration gradients.
Called Na+-K+ Pump

Sodium-Potassium Pump

3 Na+ pumped in for every 2 K+ pumped 30 out; creates a membrane potential

REFER PG 51 Figure 3.1 & examples in our daily life

Cell in Isotonic Solution

10% NaCL 90% H2O
ENVIRONMENT

CELL
10% NaCL 90% H2O
NO NET MOVEMENT

What is the direction of water movement? equilibrium The cell is at _______________.

Cell in Hypotonic Solution

10% NaCL 90% H2O

CELL
20% NaCL 80% H2O

What is the direction of water movement?

Cell in Hypertonic Solution

15% NaCL 85% H2O
ENVIRONMENT

CELL
5% NaCL 95% H2O

What is the direction of water movement?

Cells in Solutions

Isotonic Solution NO NET MOVEMENT OF H2O (equal amounts entering & leaving)

Hypotonic Solution

Hypertonic Solution

CYTOLYSIS

PLASMOLYSIS

36

Cytolysis & Plasmolysis

Cytolysis

Plasmolysis

Osmosis in Red Blood Cells

Isotonic

Hypotonic
copyright cmassengale

Hypertonic
38

What Happens to Blood Cells?

hypotonic

hypertonic

isotonic

hypertonic

isotonic

hypotonic
40

Classification of Helminths
The metazoa are classified into two phyla: Nemathelminthes; Class Nematodea : Nematode Platyhelminthes ; Class Trematodea : Trematode & Cestode

Nemahelminthes
Nematodes (roundworms) : Trichuris trichiura, Strongyloides stercolaris, Ascaris lumbricoides,Enterobius vermicularis, Filaria, Hookworms

Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
Trematodes (flukes) : Schistosoma, Fasciolopsis, Paragoniumus westermani, Clonorchis sinensis

Cestodes (tapeworms) :Diphyllobothrium latum,Taenia saginata,

Echinococcus granulosus, Hymenolepiasis nana,

Kingdom : Metazoa
Arise from more than 1 embryonic layers tissues differentiated into alimentary, excretory, reproductive and nervous system Sexes may be separate, but hemaphroditism is frequent Free living or parasitic
PHYLUM : PLATYHELMINTHES 1. Body flattened dorsoventrally 2. Body cavity absent 3. Alimentary canal absent or rudimentary 4. Suckers present 5. Mostly hermaphrodite
PHYLUM : NEMATHELMINTHES 1. Body cylindrical 2. Body cavity present 3. Alimentary canal complete 4. Suckers absent 5. Sexually differentiated

CLASS: CESTOIDEA

CLASS: TREMATODEA

CLASS: NEMATODEA

Adult worm of Adult worm of Adult worm of nematode cestode trematode (roundworm) (tapeworm) (fluke))

Phylum: Nemathelminthes a-body cylindrical. b-body cavity is present. c-alimentary canal complete. d-suckers absent. e-sexually differentiated. Class: Nematodea Body: cylindrical, unsegmented. Sex: differentiated into male and female worms. Head: no hooks or suckers, Well developed buccal capsule. Alimentary canal: complete with anus. Body cavity:present.

Parasitic Nematodes:

Roundworm

Hookworm

Elephantiasis
(Filarial worm)

LOCATION OF NEMATODE
INTESTINAL SOMATIC

Ascaris lumbricoides Ancyclostoma duodenale Necator americanus Trichinella spiralis Strongyloides stercolaris

Trichuris trichura Enterobius vermicularis

W. bancrofti B.malayi

Strongyloides stercolaris

Loa loa Oncocerca volvulus

Dipitalonema perstans Mansonella

Loa loa

MODE OF INFECTION

INGE_ _ _ _ _

CUTANEOUS PENETR_ _ _ _ _

INSECTS _ _ HALA_ _ _ _

A.lumbricoides T.trichiura E.vermicularis Gunieaworm T.spiralis

Strongyloides stercolaris Hookworm

Filaria

A.lumbricoides

SYSTEMIC CLASSIFICATION OF PATHOGENIC NEMATODES

subclass order superfamily genus

Adenophorea Enoplida

Trichinelloidea

Trichenella Trichuris Cappilaria

Strongyloides Ancyclostoma Necator Ternidens Angiost rongylus Metastrongylylus tricostrongylus Ascaris

Secernentea

Rhabditida Strongylida

Rhabditoidea Ancylostomatoidea

Metastrongyloidea

Trichostrongyloidea Ascaridida Ascaridoidea

subclass Toxocara

order

superfamily

genus Anisakis Lagochilascaris

Oxyurida Spirurida

Oxyuroidea Spiruroidea Thelazoidea Gnathostomatoidea Filarioida

Enterobius Gongylonema Thelazia Gnathostomata Wuchereria Brugia Onchocerca Loa loa Dipetalonema Mansonella Dirofilaria Dracunculus

dracunculoidea

Nematod laying eggs/larvae

Oviparous - Female lay eggs Viviparous
-Female lay larvae
Trichenella W.bancrofti Brugia malayi

Ovo viviparous
- Female lay eggs containing larvae
Strongyloides stercolaris

Unsegmented eggs Segmented eggs Egg containing larvae

Ascaris Trichuris Ancyclostoma Necator

Enterobius

 Shape Cestodes from Greek Kestos meaning girdle / ribbon are segmented tape like worms Size : Highly variable 1-4cm 15m Body structure : 3 basic structure scolex, neck Cyclophyllidea Pseudophyllidea and strobila

CESTODEA

Phylum: Platyhelminthes a-body flattened dorsovetrally. b-body cavity absent. c-alimentary canal absent or rudimentary. d-suckers present. e-mostly hermaphrodite.

Class: Cestodea Body: tapelike, segmented. Sex: hermaphrodite. Head:often with hooks and suckers. Alimentary canal: absent. Body cavity:absent

Classification of pathogenic cestodes

Order: Cyclophyllidea Family : Hymenolepidea
Hymenolepis nana Hymenolepis diminuta

Order:Pseudophyllidea Family : Dilipididae

Diphylidium caninum

Family : Taeniidea
Taenia solium T.Saginata T.Multiceps E.Granulosus E. Multilocularis E.Vogeli E.oligarthus

SuperFamily : Bethriocephaloidea
Diphyllobothrium latum Sparganum mansoni

TREMATODEA
Trematoda also called as flukes, flat worm Called trematodes because they have large prominent suckers with hole (trema) in the middle Described as leaf like or cylinder in shape

Phylum: Platyhelminthes a-body flattened dorsovetrally. b-body cavity absent. c-alimentary canal absent or rudimentary. d-suckers preset. e-mostly hermaphrodite. Class: Trematodea Body: leaf-like, unsegmented. Sex: hermaphrodite (except, Schistosoma). Head: without hooks but with suckers. Alimentary canal: incomplete, without anus. Body cavity:absent.

Human liver fluke

ANATOMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF TREMATODES

Family Schistosomatidae Group Blood flukes Vesical schistosomiasis Intestinal schistosomiasis Species S. Haematobium S.Mansoni S.Japonicum Clonorchis sinensis Opisthorchis felineus O.Viverrini Intestinal fluke Fasciola hepatica F.gigantica

Opisthorchiidae

Fasciolidae (except Fasciolopsis)

Fasciolopsis Heterophyidae

Pulmonary flukes

Fasciolopsis buski Heterophyes heterophyes Metagonimus yokogawai Gastrodiscoides hominis Paragonimus westermani

Troglotrematidae

SUMMARIZATION
Phylum: Platyhelminthes a-body flattened dorsovetrally. b-body cavity absent. c-alimentary canal absent or rudimentary. d-suckers preset. e-mostly hermaphrodite. Class: Trematodea Body: leaf-like, unsegmented. Sex: hermaphrodite (except, Schistosoma). Head: without hooks but with suckers. Alimentary canal: incomplete, without anus. Body cavity:absent.

Phylum: Nemathelminthes a-body cylindrical. b-body cavity is present. c-alimentary canal complete. d-suckers absent. e-sexually differentiated.

Class: Cestodea Body: tapelike, segmented. Sex: hermaphrodite. Head:often with hooks and suckers. Alimentary canal: absent. Body cavity:absent

Class: Nematodea Body: cylindrical, unsegmented. Sex: differentiated into male and female worms. Head: no hooks or suckers, Well developed buccal capsule. Alimentary canal: complete with anus. Body cavity:present.

General characteristics of helminths

1. They do not possess organs of locomotion, so locomotion is by muscular contraction & relaxation. 2. The outer covering, known as cuticle or integument. It is situated on its outer surface & may be armed with spines or hooks. It is resistant to intestinal digestion. 3. Nervous system and excretory system are primitive.

4.Digestive system is complete, partially lost (rudimentary) or absent. The alimentary tract has entirely disappeared from all stages of the tapeworms (cestodes); it is greatly or nearly absent in many of the trematodes, but its present and complete in most nematodes. The digestive system is partially lost (rudimentary) or absent in certain parasitic helminths because of their location in the hosts (intestine or tissue), where predigested nutrient are abundant.

5. Reproductive system is very well developed. 6. They may be monocious or diecious. Both self-fertilization and cross-fertilization may take place.

7. Reproduction to increase the parasite population within thesame host (internal autoinfection) does not occur among certain helminths; more over under usual conditions of host & environment, the number of worms that reach maturity in any given host is limited levels that are tolerable to both host & parasite. Thus most of the people who are infected with helminths are asymptomatic carriers, & the diseased individuals among the infected group are those with the heaviest worm

The terms, light moderate, and heavy as applied to worm burdens are relative and differ for the various species of helminths & in people of different ages & physical status. 8. When worms are crowded the collective egg output is great, but the output per worm is relatively low, depending on the degree of crowding.

 9. The factors that determine helminth population, are those associated with the host-parasite relationship (i.e. the immune factors derived from the host responses & the complex role of co-existing infection). - Massive infection depends initially on massive inoculation of infective larvae & eggs. 10. The co-existence of several species of helminths in the same individual (polyhelminthism) is widely prevalent.

 11. In some helminths, the life cycle is direct & relatively simple; involving only one host species and a brief period of development of an infective stage, an example is the pin worm (Enterobius vermicularis). - In a group referred to as soil transmitted helminths, the life cycle involves only one host (man) but the infective stage (larvae) remaining in the egg, as in Ascaris lumbricords & Trichuris trichiura; or free in soil as in

hookworm species which requires a period of development in soil, i.e. the soil functions as an intermediate host. - In other, the man-to-man cycle involves essential development in one intermediate host as in the filarial worms & most tapeworms, or two intermediate hosts, as in most trematodes; the first being a snail or other mollusk, the 2nd is an animal or plant that is eaten by people.

 - Intermediate hosts provide the parasite with sustenance for essential development, protection & availability to its final host.

 12. Worms & larvae that migrate through or reside in tissue generally produce eosinophilia, focally in tissue, in the blood or in both. - Persistant hyper-eosinophilia is the most recognized general sign of helminthic infection. - Helminthic infections frequently are occult or cryptic because certain helminths of animal develop in man, but do not produce eggs or larvae & therefore the infection are not patent. Such infections are referred to as nonpatent.

- In addition to eosinophilia, common signals to occult helminthic infections, somewhat in order of their significance or frequency, are hepatomegaly, pneumonitis, bronchial asthma, urticaria, subcutaneous cyst or swelling, neurologic disturbance, and deviations in behavior. Adult