Humidity Measurement

Humidity
Humidity is the measure of water vapour present in a gas. It is usually measured as absolute humidity, relative humidity or dew point temperature. Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapour present per unit volume. It is the ratio of water vapour pressure actually present to water vapour pressure required for saturation at a given temperature. The ratio is expressed in percent. Relative humidity temperature. (RH) is always dependent upon

Hygrometer
A hygrometer measures the value of humidity directly. The output of a hygrometer is used to indicate relative humidity. Several materials exhibit changes in electrical properties that are caused by humidity. These are frequently used in transducers that are designed and calibrated to read relative humidity directly.

Resistive Hygrometer
The some hygroscopic salts exhibit a change in resistivity with humidity. The most common is lithium chloride. This may be coated on a wire or an electrodes that resulting resistance changes cover a wide range 10K to 1G ohm as the humidity changes from 100 to 0 percent. This resistance change measure either with wheatstone bridge or by combination of current and voltage measurements. The resistance of the element changes when it is exposed to variations in humidity. The higher the relative humidity, the more moisture the lithium chloride will absorb, and the lower will be its resistance. The current flow is a measure of the resistance and hence of the relative humidity.

Capacitive Hygrometer
Some hygroscopic materials exhibit a change in dielectric constant with the humidity changes. The presence of water vapour in air changes the dielectric constant of the mixture. This transducers have response time of about 1sec.

pH
The degree of acidity or alkalinity of aqueous solution is determined by the relative concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in the solution. When the hydrogen ions predominate , the solution is acidic. Where the hydroxyl ions are in the major the solution is alkaline. Since the product of the hydrogen ion and hydroxyl ion concentration in any such a solution has a constant valve. Hydrogen ion concentration is measured on a scale called pH scale.

pH Measurement
pH value is obtained by immersing a pair of electrodes into the solution to be measured and measuring the voltage developed across them. In the pH cell, one of the electrodes, called the reference electrode, is at constant potential regardless of the pH value of the solution under test. The potential of the other electrodes, called the measuring electrode, is determined by the pH value of the solution. Thus the potential difference between the two electrodes depends upon the pH value of the solution.

RVDT
A variation of linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) may be used to sense angular displacement.

This is the Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT).

The operation of RVDT is similar to that of an LVDT.

It is similar to the LVDT except that its core is cam shaped and may be rotated between the windings by means of a shaft.

At the null position of the core, the output voltage of the secondary windings S1 and S2 are equal and in opposition, therefore the net output is zero.

Continued
Any angular displacement from null position will result in a differential voltage output.

The greater the angular displacement, the greater will be the differential output.

The response of the transducer is linear.

Clockwise rotation produces an increasing voltage of a secondary winding of one phase while counter-wise rotation produces an increasing voltage of opposite phase.

Tachometer
A tachometer is an instrument measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor or other machine. The device usually displays the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a calibrated analogue dial, but digital displays are increasingly common. The word tachos, means "speed", and metron, "to measure". They are used for the measurement of angular speed .

Magnetic-drag Tachometer
In the magnetic-drag type of tachometer, a transducer produces an analog signal in the form of a continuous drag due to eddy currents induced in an aluminum cup. The induced current is proportional to speed. It consists of a rotor which is coupled to the rotor shaft of the machine whose speed is to be measured. A permanent magnet is attached to the rotor which rotates within an aluminum cup along with the rotor. A spindle is attached to the aluminum cup, to which a pointer is fixed.

Magnetic-drag type Tachometer

Working
As the magnet rotates within the aluminum cup along with the shaft of the machine, eddy currents are induced. This eddy currents induced in the cup which result in a torque that tends to turn or deflect the cup against the spring. The deflection of the cup is proportional to the induced emf, which in turn is proportional to the speed of the shaft. The deflection is indicated by the pointer which moves on a calibrated scale.

Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear or tensile stress. viscosity is "thickness" or "internal friction". Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a higher viscosity. The less viscous the fluid is, the greater its ease of movement (fluidity). Viscosity is measured with various types of viscometers and rheometers. Close temperature control of the fluid is essential to accurate measurements, particularly in materials like lubricants, whose viscosity can double with a change of only 5 C.

 Capillary viscometers utilize the flow of the process liquid through a capillary to measure viscosity. The technique of determining the viscosity of Newtonian fluids by measuring the pressure across a capillary tube during laminar flow. The Hagen-Poiseuille law states that the pressure drop in a Newtonian liquid passing through a capillary tube is directly proportional to its viscosity. This law is applicable if the flow rate is constant

 This law is applicable if the flow rate is constant = Kd4P/VL = absolute viscosity K = constant d = inside diameter of the capillary tube P = pressure drop across the capillary V = flow rate L = length of the capillary tube

Rotational viscometers
The rotational viscometers are probably the most widely used rheometer. The operating principle of the rotational type viscometer is based on the fact that the torque is necessary to overcome the viscous resistance to the induced movement(torque) by rotational of a spindle is directly proportional to the viscosity of the fluid. The rotational viscometers are particularly valuable for investigation of non-Newtonian fluids.

Vibration
Vibration measurements are frequently carried out on rotating and reciprocating machinery for analysis, design and trouble-shooting purposes. The quantities required to be measured in a vibrating system are displacement, velocity and accceleration. The peak values of the quantities should be known. Displacement, velocity or acceleration are related to each other . If one of the three variables is measured, it is possible to determine the other two by integration or differentiation using electronic devices.