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Frequency Distributions
Tables and graphs Any scale of measurement How many times does each score occur?
Find the highest score in the raw data. Find the lowest score in the raw data. Write down the score values from highest to lowest in a column headed X. Count how many times each score occurs, and write the frequency in a second column headed f. Add up the f column to check: Sf = N.
An example
The DIT-2 test of moral reasoning was taken by 20 Houghton seniors. On the new N-scale, which measures the rejection of self-interest in moral reasoning, their scores were: 20 18 16 13 19 19 20 18 18 17 18 19 17 19 18 17 19 18 15 19 The highest score is 20; the lowest is 13.
X f 20 2 19 6 18 6 17 3 16 1 15 1 14 0 13 1 Sf = 20
Scores are listed from highest to lowest under X. The count of each score is placed under f. The sum of f = N (20) Note that most of the 20 seniors scored very high on the scale. 85% scored 17 or higher.
Another example
The DIT-2 test of moral reasoning was taken by 20 Houghton sophomores. On the new N-scale, which measures the rejection of self-interest in moral reasoning, their scores were: 13 12 15 10 11 10 9 11 13 10 10 11 10 12 11 10 11 10 8 12 The highest score is 15, and the lowest is 8.
X f 15 1 14 0 13 2 12 3 11 5 10 7 9 1 8 1 Sf = 20
Scores are listed from highest to lowest under X. The count of each score is placed under f. The sum of f = N (20) Note that most of the 20 sophomores scored in the middle of the scale. 85% scored between 10 and 13.
Frequency distribution
Organizes data
Scores in order Frequency of each score
10 12 11 21 19 16 16 15 9 17 15 18
9 7 20 17 8 20
17 16 14 13 12 14
6 13 18 21 10 12
X Frequency (f)
21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6
2 2 1 2 3 3 Sf = N = 30 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 1 1 1
Find the range of the scores, high - low. Select an interval size that will give about 10 groups. Use multiples of the interval size as the nominal lower limits of each interval. List and tally the scores, and fill in the frequency and cumf columns.
The percentile is the score (value of X) that has a given percentage of the number of scores (N) below it. For example, if a distribution contains 60 scores (N = 60), then the 50th percentile is the score that has 30 scores (50% of 60 scores) below it. The 20th percentile is the score that has 12 scores (20% of 60) below it.
Percentile Ranks
The percentile rank is the percentage of the scores in a distribution that fall below a given score. For example, if an SAT verbal score of 660 is higher than 80% of the scores in the distribution, then the percentile rank of a score of 660 is 80. If an SAT math score of 550 is higher than 55% of the scores in the distribution, then the percentile rank of a score of 550 is 55.
Score
Percent
Calculating percentiles
1. Multiply the percentage in the question by N to find the number of scores below the desired percentile (cumfp) 2. Find the lower limit of the interval containing cumfp. 3. Determine the proportion of the scores in the interval needed to reach cumfp (cumfp - cumfL)/ fi 4. Find the corresponding score.
Using the logical method, we can derive a formula, viz.: P50 = LRL + (cumfp - cumfb) (i ) fw from which a parallel formula is derived, viz.: P50 = LRL + i cumfp - cumfb fw
Percentile rank
x 100
Later in the course, we will learn a much simpler method of finding percentiles and percentile ranks.
Graph types
Bar graph: For frequency distributions of discrete variables, often nominal or ordinal data. Bars represent separate groups, so they should be separated. Histogram: For frequency distributions of continuous variables, usually interval or ratio data. Bars represent segments of a range, so they should touch.
Bar graphs
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 POL BAD PSY SOC
Number of students in statistics class from each of four majors, fall, 2005
Histogram
8 7
1 60
70
80
90
100
Frequency polygons
8
60
70
80
90
100
These are formed by drawing lines to connect the middle of the tops of the bars in a histogram, closing to the X axis at each end or tail. Dont forget to close the tails to the X axis.
More graphs
One-mode symmetrical
The normal distribution
Rectangular distributions