Mechanical Waves

Ms. Mikaela Irene Fudolig

Physics 71 Lecture
What is a (mechanical) wave?
A wave is a disturbance that can travel
from one region to another.
The disturbance travels, but NOT the actual
particles!
Waves transport energy and momentum,
but NOT matter, from one region to
another.
What is a (mechanical) wave?
For mechanical waves, the disturbance
travels, or propagates, through a medium.
However, the particles in the medium do
not propagate in space.
What is a (mechanical) wave?
Classification of waves
Transverse
the displacement of particles in the medium is
PERPENDICULAR to the direction of
propagation of the wave
Longitudinal
the displacement of particles in the medium is
PARALLEL to the direction of propagation of
the wave

Classification of waves
Wave Speed
A wave also travels with a definite speed
v, which we call the wave speed, or the
speed of propagation of the wave.
The wave speed is medium-dependent.
The wave speed is NOT the speed of the
particles in the medium.
Periodic Waves
Consider a string tied to a fixed point on
one end and free on the other.
If we move the free end up and down
periodically, we see a periodic wave.
Periodic Waves
Suppose the free end moves with simple
harmonic motion.
amplitude A
frequency e
We get a sinusoidal wave!

Periodic Waves
When a sinusoidal wave passes through
a medium, every particle in the medium
undergoes simple harmonic motion with
the same frequency.
Conceptual Exercise 1
Every particle in the medium moves in a
periodic manner. The wave also travels in
a periodic manner.
Differentiate the motions of the particles in the
medium and the propagating wave.
Periodic Waves
Periodic Waves
A mechanical wave is periodic in both
space and time.
Periodic Waves
Thus, we can associate with the wave
periodic quantities for both time and
space.
Wavelength,
The wavelength, , is the crest-to-crest
or trough-to-trough distance of the
wave:


Period, T
The period, T, is the time it takes the wave
to travel one wavelength.
The frequency, f, is just the inverse of the
period.
The angular frequency, e, is just 2tf.
Wave Speed
Since the wave travels one wavelength
in a period T, the wave propagates with a
speed:
v f
T

= =
Longitudinal waves
Longitudinal waves can be treated in the
same way as waves on a string. Crests
and troughs are equivalent to rarefactions
and compressions, and so, wavelengths
and periods also exist for longitudinal
waves.
Longitudinal waves
Example/Exercise 1
If the speed of sound is 344m/s, and the
frequency of a sound wave is 384Hz, what
is the wavelength of the sound wave?
Mathematical Description of a Wave
Recall that a periodic wave is periodic in
both space and time.
Thus, we expect that the displacement of
a particle in the medium, y, is a function
of its position, x, and time, t.
Mathematical Description of a Wave
Assume that the particle at x=0 undergoes
SHM:

0
( ) ( 0, ) cos( )
x
y t y x t A t e |
=
= = = +
Mathematical Description of a Wave
If (a) the displacement of the x=0
particle is maximum at t=0 and (b) the
velocity of the particle is zero at t=0,
then |=0:


0
( ) ( 0, ) cos( )
x
y t y x t A t e
=
= = =
What is the displacement y(t) of another
particle located at another position x?
Mathematical Description of a Wave
Consider a wave traveling to the
RIGHT.
Since the wave travels with a speed v to
the right, the displacement at x is the
same as the displacement at x=0 at an
EARLIER time t=x/v:
( , ) cos
x
y x t A t
v
e
| |
(
=
|
(

\ .
Mathematical Description of a Wave
Since cos(-x)=cos(x):



Define:
( , ) cos
x
y x t A t
v
e
| |
(
=
|
(

\ .
2
k
t

=
WAVE
NUMBER
Mathematical Description of a Wave
And we have:
( , ) cos( ) y x t A kx t e =
WAVE
MOVING TO
THE RIGHT
Mathematical Description of a Wave
Consider a wave traveling to the LEFT.
Since the wave travels with a speed v to
the right, the displacement at x is the
same as the displacement at x=0 at an
LATER time t=x/v:
( , ) cos
x
y x t A t
v
e
| |
(
= +
|
(

\ .
Mathematical Description of a Wave
Rewriting:
( , ) cos( ) y x t A kx t e = +
WAVE
MOVING TO
THE LEFT
Mathematical Description of a Wave
The displacement y of a particle in
the medium depends on both the
time t and its position x.
Example/Exercise 2
Y&F 15.6. A certain transverse wave is
described by:



Find the waves (a) amplitude, (b)
wavelength, (c) frequency, (d) speed of
propagation, and (e)direction of
propagation.

( , ) (6.50 )cos 2
28.0 0.0360
x t
y x t mm
cm s
t
(
| |
=
| (
\ .

Example/Exercise 3
Y&F ex.15.2. A
string is tied to a
fixed point at one
end, and the free
end is moved up
and down
sinusoidally with
frequency 2.00Hz
and amplitude
0.075m. The wave
speed is v=12.0m/s.
Assume that the
initial displacement
of the particle at x=0
is maximum and
that it is initially at
rest.Find the waves
amplitude
angular frequency
period
wavelength
wave number
Example/Exercise 3
Y&F ex.15.2. A
string is tied to a
fixed point at one
end, and the free
end is moved up
and down
sinusoidally with
frequency 2.00Hz
and amplitude
0.075m. The wave
speed is v=12.0m/s.
What is the wave
function y(x,t)?
Assume the wave is
moving to the right.
The Wave Speed and the Particle
Speed
The DISTURBANCE propagates in space,
but the PARTICLES do not.
The waves propagate with speed v.
The particles move with speed v
y
.
What is the difference
between the wave speed
and the particle speed?
Particle Velocity
Recall that y(x,t) is the displacement of the
PARTICLE located at x.
Then, the speed of the particle is just
sin( )
y
y
v A kx t
t
e e
c
= =
c
Wave Speed
The wave speed is the speed of
propagation of the wave:
v f
T k
e
= = =
Wave Equation
All waves satisfy what we call the wave
equation:
2 2
2 2 2
( , ) 1 ( , ) y x t y x t
x v t
c c
=
c c
CURVATURE
ACCELERATION
Speed of Transverse Waves on a
String
The speed of a transverse wave on a
string with linear mass density under
tension F is
F
v

=
m
L
=
Conceptual Exercise 2
The six strings of a guitar are of the same
tension, but have different thickness. On
which string do waves travel the fastest?
Conceptual Exercise 3
How do you increase the frequency of the
sound produced by a guitar string without
changing its length? (For standing waves,
the wavelength is fixed.)
Example/Exercise 4
One end of a uniform nylon rope is tied to a
stationary support at the top of a vertical mine
shaft 80.0m deep. The rope is stretched taut by
a box of mineral samples with mass 20.0kg
attached to the lower end. The mass of the rope
is 2.00kg. The geologist at the bottom of the
mine signal to his colleague at the top by jerking
the rope sideways.
Example/Exercise 4

Example/Exercise 4
Neglecting the mass
of the rope in
calculating the
tension:
Find the speed of a
transverse wave on
a rope.

Example/Exercise 4
Neglecting the mass
of the rope in
calculating the
tension:
If the rope is given a
transverse simple
harmonic motion with
f=2.00Hz, how many
cycles of the wave
are there in the
ropes length?

Example/Exercise 4
If we include the
weight of the rope in
calculating the
tension:
What is the speed of
a wave on the rope
at the top?
What is the speed of
a wave on the rope
at the bottom?

Energy of Waves on a String
Waves transport energy
the work that you do by moving the free end of
the string is transmitted from one particle to the
next particle
The rate at which energy is transferred is
the power.

Energy of Waves on a String
Consider a portion of a wave moving from
left to right (x-direction).
Power of a sinusoidal wave on a
string
The instantaneous power is:
( , )
( , ) ( , )
y y
y
P F v
F v
y x t
F
t
y x t y x t
F
x t
=
=
c
=
c
c c
=
c c
Power of a sinusoidal wave on a
string
By plugging in y(x,t), we get:
2 2 2
( , ) sin ( ) P x t v A kx t e e =
INSTANTANEOUS
POWER
Power of a sinusoidal wave on a
string
The maximum value of P(x,t) is
2 2
( , ) P x t v A e =
MAXIMUM
INSTANTANEOUS
POWER
Power of a sinusoidal wave on a
string
Plot of P(x,t):
Power of a sinusoidal wave on a
string
The average power is therefore:
2 2
1
( , )
2
P x t v A e =
AVERAGE POWER
Example/Exercise 5
Y&F 15.20. A piano wire with mass
3.00g and length 80.0cm is stretched
with a tension of 25.0N. A wave with
frequency 120.0Hz and amplitude
1.6mm travels along the wire.
Calculate the maximum instantaneous
power carried by the wave.
Calculate the average power carried by the
wave.
Example/Exercise 5
Y&F 15.20. A piano wire with mass
3.00g and length 80.0cm is stretched
with a tension of 25.0N. A wave with
frequency 120.0Hz and amplitude
1.6mm travels along the wire.
What happens to the average power if the
amplitude is halved?
Intensity
For spherical waves (e.g., sound waves),
we define the intensity:
average power per unit area
2
4
P
I
r t
=
r = distance from source
Intensity
As the wave propagates in space, the
power remains constant. Thus, the
intensity at two different points r
1
and r
2

are related by:
2
1 2
2
2 1
I r
I r
=
Example/Exercise 6
At a distance of 15.0m from the source,
the intensity of a sound wave is
0.250W/m
2
. At what distance from the
siren is the intensity 0.010 W/m
2
?
Ans. 75.0m
Traveling Waves and Standing
Waves
So far, weve been dealing only with
traveling waves
e.g., waves that travel along a string
we did not consider barriers
What happens if a wave is bounded on
both ends?
standing waves!

Traveling Waves and Standing
Waves
To understand how standing waves occur,
we need to understand:
reflection of waves
superposition of waves

Reflection of Waves
The shape of the reflected wave depends
on the boundary:
free end
Reflection of Waves
The shape of the reflected wave depends
on the boundary:
free end
Reflecting pulse
is NOT
INVERTED
Reflection of Waves
Reflected
pulse is
NOT
INVERTED
Reflection of Waves
The shape of the reflected wave depends
on the boundary:
fixed end
Reflection of Waves
The shape of the reflected wave depends
on the boundary:
fixed end
Reflecting
Pulse is
INVERTED
Reflection of Waves
Reflecting
pulse is
INVERTED
Reflection of Waves
Free end
reflecting pulse is NOT INVERTED
Fixed end
reflecting pulse is INVERTED

Wave Interference
Interference occurs when two or more
waves pass through the same region at
the same time.
may be constructive or destructive
Superposition
The principle of superposition gives us
the wave function resulting from two or
more interfering waves:
1 2
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) y x t y x t y x t = +
Example 7a

Example 7b

Exercise 7
What is the resulting wave function from
the addition of two identical wave pulses
moving with the same speed but in
opposite directions?
Exercise 8
How about the following case?
Standing Wave
Consider a string, fixed at one end and
free at the other.
Introduce SHM at free end.
Periodic waves
What happens to the resulting
wave function if reflection
occurs at both ends?
Standing Wave
Because of the reflection on both ends
of the string, we have a wave pattern
that doesnt appear to be moving to the
left or the right
hence, the name standing (compare to
traveling)
Nodes and Antinodes
1. Nodes
points that do NOT move AT ALL
2. Antinodes
points of GREATEST amplitude
Nodes and Antinodes
The distance between two nodes or two
antinodes is /2:

/2
/2
Wave Function of a Standing Wave
Incident wave traveling to the left:



Reflected wave (fixed end)moving to the
right:

1
( , ) cos( ) y x t A kx t e = +
2
( , ) cos( ) y x t A kx t e =
Wave Function of a Standing Wave
Using


we get the wave function of the standing
wave (fixed end at x=0):

cos( ) cos cos sin sin a b a b a b =
1 2
( , ) ( , ) ( , )
2 sin sin
y x t y x t y x t
A kx t e
= +
=
Wave Function of a Standing Wave
Rewriting:

( , ) ( sin )sin
SW
y x t A kx t e =
2
SW
A A =
Nodes/Antinodes
Nodes have zero amplitude, and they can
be located at:
2 3
0, , , ,...
2 2 2
nodes
x

=
Nodes/Antinodes
Antinodes have maximum amplitude, and
they can be located at:
3 5
, , ,...
4 4 4
antinodes
x

=
Energy Transfer in Standing Waves
Since the incident and reflected waves
carry equal amounts of power in opposite
directions, the average energy transfer is
zero.
Standing Waves
Previously, we assumed no prior
knowledge about the length of the string.
What if we do?
string fixed at both ends (x=0 and x=L)
string fixed at one end (x=L)
String Tied at Both Ends
String Tied at Both Ends
Consider a string of length L (fixed at
x=0 and x=L).
Each end of the string is a NODE.
2 3
0, , , ,...
2 2 2
nodes
x L

= =
2 3
0 0, , , ,...
2 2 2
nodes
x

= =
String Tied at Both Ends
Consider a string of length L (fixed at
x=0 and x=L).
Each end of the string is a NODE.
2
n
L

=
String Tied at Both Ends
Since L is fixed, we can have many
possible values of the wavelength:
2
n
L
n
=
STANDING-WAVE
CONDITION
String Tied at Both Ends
The frequency is given by
2
n
n
v v
f n
L
= =
String Tied at Both Ends
The frequency is given by
1 n
f nf =
HARMONICS/
NORMAL-MODE
FREQUENCY
Definition: Normal Modes
A normal mode of an oscillating system
is a motion in which all particles of the
system move sinusoidally with the same
frequency.
Each n corresponds to a normal-mode
pattern.
Normal Modes
Exercise 8
The frequency of the E-key is 330 Hz. If a
string has a mass 10.0g and is 1m long:
what must be the tension in the string for it to
produce an E sound when it is tied at both
ends?
what is the frequency and wavelength of the
second overtone (third harmonic)?