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Phased-Array probes
Single Trigger Pulse
Time
Wave front
Conventional Waveforming
Excitation pulse
Crystal
A B C
Delay
Wedge
Material
A B C
Location
Wave front
Conventional Waveforming
Received signal Crystal
A B C
Delay
Wedge Material
A B C
Location
Phased-Array Waveforming
Delay Time Focal law
Beam Focusing
Is the capability to converge the acoustic energy into a small focal spot Allows for focusing at several depths, using a single probe
Beam Steering
Beam Steering
Is the capability to modify the refracted angle of the beam generated by the array probe. Allows for multiple angle inspections, using a single probe
Diffracted waves
All directions
Reflected wave
Diffracted waves
Basic Setup
2 probes (transmitter, receiver) Wide beam, longitudinal waves Symmetric to the weld center Diffraction signal detection (high receiver sensitivity)
TOFD Signals
Signals received
Lateral wave, subsurface Back-wall echo Mode converted (shear wave) echo
TOFD Signals
Transmitter Lateral wave Upper tip Lower tip Back-wall reflection Receiver
Indication
Lateral wave
Back-wall
1 2
The crack blocks the Lateral Wave And the lower tip appears on the A-scan
1 2 3
2
3
TOFD - Advantages
Diffracted rather than reflected signals Longitudinal waves B-scan type imaging (side view) Accurate sizing capability (height) Interpretation of defects Less sensitive to defect orientation
TOFD - Limitations
Blind area - near surface, backwall ID and OD Geometry (Hi-Lo) Weak signals Couplant loss Flaw classification limitation Interpretation of defects Sensitive to grain noise and Coarse grained materials