Mare Anatomy

 Vulva
 Vagina
 Cervix
 Uterus
 Oviducts
 Ovaries
Normal uterus
 Period of Embryo
• Day 15-55 to 60 - Period of organogenesis.
• Maximum mobility from day 11-16.
• Fixation between day 14 and 16.
• Embryo loses spherical shape, appears
triangular at day 17-19.
• Amniotic sac begins to form around day 21.
• 10% of pregnant mares may show weak estrus and
increased follicular activity.
• Fetal heart beat discernible by day 25 on ultrasound
exam.

• Day 25 to 30 - If EED occurs, estrus occurs 2-4

weeks later

• Day 28 - Allantois appears and first allantochorionic

villi form at yolk sac border

• Early attachment by day 39

• Day 35-40 - PMSG (eCG) – first detectable

• Day 42 - change from yolk sac to allantochorionic

dependence

• Day 50-55 - Accessory corpora lutea formation

• Day 55-60 - Villi cover all chorion touching

endometrium except endometrial cup areas
 Period of fetus
• Day 55-60
• Period of progressive increase in fetal crown-rump
length
• Day 60 - Maximal PMSG concentrations
• Day 90 - Estrone sulphate levels begin to increase
• Maximum placental attachment occurs by day 150
• Day 80-240 - Maximum growth of fetal gonads and
production of estrogens
 Rectal palpation

Cervical changes from 16 or 17 d to term

are
elongation, firmness and tubularity.
The uterus also has increased tone.
 
 The chorionic vesicle is distinct and spherical and
approximate sizes are:
• 28 d (4 wks) Key lime (pullet egg)
• 35 d (5 wks) lemon
• 42 d (6 wks) orange
• 49 d (7 wks) grapefruit
• 56 d (8 wks) cantaloupe
• By 90 d it is hard to delineate the cranial margin of
uterus.
• Fetal Ballotment per rectum becomes consistent after
150d.
• Aging fetus by size, as in the cow, is imprecise.
• Differentials which may confuse the examiner include
the bladder and enlargement in the non pregnant tract at
the base of the uterine horn.
 Rectal examination

I. Cervix:
• In early pregnancy (16 to 30 days) the cervix
can be palpated on the floor of the pelvis as a
rigid, firm structure (as during dioestrus).
II. Ovaries:
• Both ovaries are usually enlarged from 18 to 40 days due to
follicular development and the CL is not palpable.
• From 40 to 120 days there is extensive ovarian activity
with ovulations, luteinisation and development of
secondary corpora lutea.
• Follicular activity decreases from 120 days to term and the
ovaries become small and inactive for the remainder of
gestation.
• The position of the ovaries up to 60 days of pregnancy is as
for the non-pregnant mare.
• From then on they are drawn forward and medially but
remain dorsal (above) to the uterus.
• From 5 months of pregnancy, the ovaries are not usually
palpable.
 Uterus: Both uterine horns and body should be
palpated. Pregnancy diagnosis is based on tone
and location of uterus and contents.
 15 to 22 days
 The uterus becomes more tubular and turgid from
15 to 22 days post-ovulation and is readily
palpable. It can be difficult to feel the conceptual
swelling except in maiden mares.

 22 to 28 days
 At about 22 days the conceptual swelling
develops at the uterine horn/body junction. This
corresponds to fixation, when the conceptus
stops migration in the uterus and becomes fixed
in position, prior to implantation. The swelling is
3 to 4 cm in diameter (about the size of a golf-
ball) and it bulges ventrally.
 28 to 35 days
 The uterus is still turgid, and the
conceptual bulge is more obvious and the
embryonic vesicle is 3 to 6 cm in diameter.
The uterine wall over the conceptus
begins to feel thin.
 35 to 60 days
 As the conceptus grows the swelling
becomes larger and spherical and appears
more as a fluid sac. By 42 days it is about
5 x 7 cm (the size of a tennis ball). The
uterine tone around the bulge begins to
decrease so that the swelling becomes
less tense
 60 to 90 days
 By 60 days the swelling is about 12 cm in
diameter and fills the pregnant horn. After 60
days the pregnancy is like an elongated football
and starts to involve the uterine body. One must
be careful not to confuse it with the bladder or a
case of pyometra. The uterus migrates cranially.
 Between days 60 and 100, the uterus is low
within the abdomen and the foetus can not
usually be palpated;
 From 4 to 5 months onwards the foetus can
usually be palpated.
 Ultrasound Examination
 Diagnostic ultrasound plays a pivotal role
in the reproductive management of the
mare and no deleterious effects of
ultrasonography have been reported in
man nor in the equine.
 A thorough understanding of normal
ultrasonographic anatomy is vital for
veterinarians involved in broodmare work.
 Principles of diagnostic ultrasound
 • Diagnostic ultrasound utilises sound frequencies between 2
and 10 MHz.
 • Ultrasound is produced by application of an alternating
voltage to piezoelectric crystals which change in size and produce
a pressure or ultrasound wave. Returning echoes deform the
same crystals which generate a surface voltage.
 • Most diagnostic ultrasound machines use the principle of
brightness modulation (B-mode) where the returning echoes are
displayed as dots, the brightness of which is proportional to their
amplitude.
 • Real-time B-mode ultrasound is a dynamic imaging system
where information is continually updated and displayed on a
monitor.
 • Ultrasound is attenuated within tissues and attenuation is related
to the density of the tissue, the heterogeneity of the tissue and the
number and type of echo interfaces.
 • Bright (specular) echoes are produced when a large proportion of
the beam is reflected back to the transducer; these echoes are
displayed as white areas on the ultrasound machine screen.
 • No echoes are produced when the sound is transmitted and not
reflected; these areas are displayed as black on the ultrasound
machine screen.
 Day 11
pregnancy
 A 14 day
conceptus
viewed by
ultrasound. Note
the regularity of
the circular
shape.
 By 17 days the
regularity of shape
is starting to
deteriorate - note
the "ragged" edges
now seen on the
17-day pregnancy
compared to the
16-day.
 By 23 days the embryo
itself can be seen with
ultrasound - here it is
visible between the red
calliper marks on the
image. The heartbeat can
also start to be detected at
this stage. Note here how
the regular rounding has
completely deteriorated,
and the conceptus is
appearing oval, and
without "smooth" edges.
 At 33 days, the developing
allantois (the outgrowth of
the embryo's hindgut
which forms the bladder,
carries blood vessels in the
umbilical cord, and later
combines with the chorion
to form the placenta) is
visible, and the yolk sac
(visible here as the upper
portion of the dark section)
is regressing. The apparent
"division" in the conceptus
at this stage is not to be
mistaken for twin embryos
- of which clearly only one
is visible.
 A different view of
a 35 day
pregnancy shows
that there can be
differences
Yolk/Allantoic
sac.
Embryo position.
 By day 39 the yolk
sac has almost
completely
regressed and is
visible here only as
the dark circular
area immediately
above the embryo
(compare this with
the 33 day image).
 In this photograph of a 50-
day fetus, the legs, head,
tail and eye are all clearly
defined externally.
 Internally organs and
skeletal structures are in
place.
 Within 10 days or so, the
sex of the fetus can be
determined using
ultrasound, by establishing
the direction of migration of
the pedicle that will become
either the penis or the
clitoris.
 Upward migration towards
the anus of course indicates
a female.
 Fetal sexing
 Numerous reasons for desiring knowledge of the sex
of the fetus
• Appraisals,

• Insurance coverage,

• Payment of stud fees,

• Sales consignments,

• Mating lists,

• Sale or purchase, etc. 

 Gender determination is based on the location of the

genital tubercle. 
 The genital tubercle is the precursor of the penis
in the male or the clitoris in the female. 
 The tubercle migrates toward the umbilicus in the
male and toward the anus in the female. 
  Ideal times for performing the procedure
are from 59 to 68 days or 5 to 6
months. 
 Before 58 days the tubercle is not

distinct enough and has not migrated

sufficiently to make a distinction. 
 After 70 days the fetus is hard to

reach until it is approximately 3.5 to 4

months of age. 
 As the fetus gets larger, a

transabdominal approach may be

preferred. 
 If cattle are available, it is easier to learn
External signs of pregnancy  
 Although abdominal enlargement is
characteristic of pregnancy, it is unreliable
as a diagnostic sign. 
 Ballotment or observed movements of the
fetus can often be seen late in gestation. 
 Mammary changes are quite variable. 

 Pelvic changes (relaxation of the pelvic

ligaments) occur late in gestation but are
often difficult to detect. 
 Cessation of estrus behavior is variable
and unreliable. 
 Some mares will continue to show estrus
even when pregnant.
 Indirect
pregnancy
tests  
 eCG test
Endometrial cups in a mare.
 For example, with the
 The presence of eCG has
been used as a test for
pregnancy because it is only
found in pregnant mares. 
 The problem is that it
remains elevated after the
cups are formed even if
fetal death occurs. In
house tests are available
which makes them
attractive in some
situations (e.g. miniature
horses). 
Synbiotics test, it is reported
that 20% of samples are
 Plasma progesterone test
 Progesterone concentrations in plasma can be measured
by radio-immunoassay,
 Alternatively the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
(ELISA) tests can be used in a veterinary practice
laboratory giving the results more rapidly.
 At 17 to 22 days post-ovulation, pregnant mares should
have progesterone levels above 2 ng/ml .
 However an incorrect diagnosis of pregnancy can occur
in cases of:
1. Prolonged luteal phase,
2. Early embryonic death or
3. Mares with a short luteal phase.
 Not all mares with high progesterone concentrations are
pregnant and high progesterone levels only indicate that
luteal tissue is present in the ovary. ·
 Equine chorionic gonadotrophin (eCG)

 Produced by fetal trophoblast cells that invade the

maternal endometrium beginning around day 35 to
form the endometrial cups.
 Concentrations of eCG in the blood from
approximately 40 days after ovulation and these
concentrations usually persist at least until 80 - 120
days after ovulation.
 False positive results are seen when the pregnancy
fails after the endometrial cups have formed and
continue to produce eCG.
 False negative results may be seen if sampling is at
an incorrect time and in some mares which can be
negative for eCG as early as 70 days after ovulation.
 Placental oestrogen determination

 Serum oestrone sulphate levels are detectable From

day 65 of pregnancy onwards
 It increase to peak around day 200, remaining high
until after 300 days.
 The oestrogens come from the foeto-placental unit
especially the foetal gonads which are very large
during the later stages of pregnancy.
 Small amounts of oestrogen are produced by the
follicles on the mare’s ovaries.
 In general, this is a reliable assay and can even be
performed on faeces.
 Also a good indicator of foetal viability.
Cuboni test

 Estrogens are
elevated 150 d to
term.
 It is due to production
from fetal gonads. 
 The Cuboni test,
based on fluorescence
of urine, is 90%
accurate after 100 d,
100% accurate after
150 d. 
 Estrone sulfate test
 Estrone sulfate can be tested for in almost any bodily
fluid.
 In serum there is a sharp rise after 60 d, peak levels by
80 d.
 Before 60 d a false positive can be obtained due to
estrus.
 In milk a similar pattern is observed, only with lower
values.
 It is considered an indicator of fetal viability after 44 d.
 In feces, it can be found after 4 mos.
 Also be found in urine.
 Commercial tests available "Equi Test - ES"
 Determination of
Oestradiol-17-b Hormone in
Faeces
 The faeces samples of pregnant and non-pregnant
mares contained a mean oestradiol-17 b concentration
of 9.39 ± 2.63 and 7.70 ± 2.00 ng/g, respectively in
the 4th month of gestation.
 From the 5th month of pregnancy the oestradiol-17 b
concentration in pregnant mares was significantly
higher than in non-pregnant mares.
 Oestradiol-17 b levels were estimated to be 71.20 ±
8.00 and 4.60 ± 2.20 ng/g in pregnant and non-
pregnant mares in the 5th month of pregnancy,
respectively.
 Early Pregnancy Factor
 EPF - two components
 EPF-A - Uterine tube
 EPF -B - Ovary
 Production requires signal from fertilized ovum
(ovum factor) released under prolactin presence after
sperm penetration.
 Appears 4-6 hours
 Disappears with fetal death
 Non-detectable at 20 days in milk and 30 days in
serum
 Lateral flow dipstick test
 It does not work in the cow, so I have doubts in the
mare.