METALS AND ITS ALLOYS

CLASSIFICATION OF METALS
FERROUS METALS / ALLOYS NONFERROUS METALS / ALLOYS

CLASSIFICATION OF METALS AND METAL ALLOYS

Ferrous Nonferrous

Steels

Cu & its Alloys Cast Iron Al & its Alloys Mg & its Alloys Ti & its Alloys The Refractory Metals The Superalloys The Noble Metals Miscellaneous Nonferrous Alloys

FERROUS ALLOYS
Those

of which IRON ( Fe ) is the prime constituent. produced in larger quantities than any other metal type.

Are

Considered

as an especially important engineering construction material.

 Ferrous

metals are iron-base alloys with small percentage of C and other elements added to achieve desired properties. all forms of iron and steel alloys.

Include Few

examples include wrought iron, cast iron, carbon steels, alloy steels and tool steels.

Reasons for the widespread use of ferrous alloys

(1)

(2)

(3)

iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the earths crust; Metallic iron and steel alloys maybe produced using relatively economical process; Ferrous alloys are extremely versatile in terms of mechanical and physical properties.

Principal Disadvantage of Ferrous Alloys

its susceptibility to CORROSION.

Ferrous Metals & Alloys

Steel Low alloy Low-C Plain High-strength, Medium-C Plain Heat treatable High-C Plain Tool Tool High Alloy Cast Irons Gray cast iron Ductile ( nodular ) iron

White Iron
Malleable

Stainless

Ferrous Metal Alloys

Steel
Low

Alloy Steel

Low Carbon Steel Medium Carbon Steel High Carbon Steel Stainless Steels Tool Steels

High

Alloy Steel

Cast Iron
Gray

Cast Iron Ductile (nodular) White Iron Malleable Iron

Nonferrous Alloys
Copper and its Alloys Aluminum and its Alloys Magnesium and its Alloys Titanium and its Alloys The Refractory Metals The Super Alloys The Noble Metals Miscellaneous Nonferrous Alloys

HEMATITE

COMMON IRON ORES

Hematite - Fe2O3 - 70 percent iron Magnetite - Fe3O4 - 72 percent iron Limonite - Fe2O3 + H2O - 50 percent to 66 percent iron Siderite - FeCO3 - 48 percent iron Usually, you find these minerals mixed into rocks containing silica. Iron Ore To make iron, you start with iron ore. Iron ore is simply rock that happens to contain a high concentration of iron.

IRON
Pure iron rarely exists outside of the laboratory. Iron is produced by reducing iron ore to pig iron through the use of a blast furnace.

From PIG IRON, many other types of iron and steel are produced by adding or removing of carbon and alloying metals.

PIG IRON
pig iron is composed of about 93% iron, from 3% - 5% carbon, and various amounts of other elements. Pig iron is comparatively weak and brittle, therefore it has a limited use. About 90% produced pig iron is refined to produce steel. Cast iron pipe and some fittings and valves are manufactured from pig iron.

STEEL

An iron-carbon ( Fe-C ) alloy that may contain appreciable concentrations of other alloying elements; there are thousands of alloys that have different compositions and/or heat treatments.

 Mechanical

properties are sensitive to the content of carbon, which is normally less than 1.0%wt. of Steels (1) Carbon Steels (2) Tool Steels

Types

CARBON STEELS
Contain only residual concentrations of impurities other than C and a little manganese. Type of steel when no minimum content is specified or required for Cr, Co, Nb, Mo, Ni, Ti, W, V, Zr or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect ; when C content not exceed the minimum of 0.40%.

ALLOY STEELS
Type of steel where more alloying elements are intentionally added in specific concentrations

TYPES OF CARBON STEELS

1.

2.
3. 4.

Plain Carbon Low Carbon Steel ( up to 0.25% C ) Medium Carbon Steel (0.25%-0.45%C ) High Carbon Steel (0.45%-1.50%C )

INGOT IRON
Is commercially pure iron ( 99.85% Fe ) Easily formed and possesses good ductility and corrosion resistance. Comparable to low carbon steel in its chemical analysis and properties. Low Carbon steel has about 0.06% more C than ingot iron. C in iron is considered as an impurity but in steel, C is an alloying element.

CAST IRON
Any iron containing greater than 2% C. Has high compressive strength and good wear resistance, however it lacks ductility, malleability and impact strength.

WROUGHT IRON
Is made from pig iron with some slag mixed to it during manufacture. Is almost pure iron, and the presence of slag enables it to resist corrosion and oxidation. Is comparable to medium carbon steel in chemical analysis. Can be gas & arc welded, machined, plated and easily formed, however it has low hardness and low fatigue strength.

PLAIN CARBON STEEL

Although called plane C, actually the iron and carbon alloy contains manganese, phosphorus, sulfur and silicon. Strength is primarily a function of its C content, increasing with increasing C. However, ductility decreases as C content increases.

Disadvantages of Plain C Steels

Low hardenability Its physical properties are decreased by both high and low temperatures. Subject to corrosion in most environments.

LOW CARBON STEEL

Contains

up to 0.3% carbon Produced in greatest quantities among all the different types of steels. The largest category of this class of steel is flat-rolled products ( in sheet or strip ), usually in the cold-rolled or annealed condition. Unresponsive to heat treatment, that is why, strengthening is accomplished by cold work.

Microstructures : pearlite and ferrite

PROPERTIES OF LOW C STEEL

Not heat treatable; strengthening by cold work process only. Relatively soft and weak ( pearlitic & ferritic microstructure ) but have outstanding ductility and toughness. Machinable, weldable The least expensive to produce among all steels.

Advantages of Low-C Steels

Possess good formability Possess good weldability, best of all metals. NOTE: as C % increases, there is a tendency for the metal to harden & crack. Lowest cost Rated 55-60% machinability ( American Institute of Iron and Steel AISI rating compares ability to machine with 100% basis).

APPLICATIONS
Automobile body panels, tin plate and wire products. For rolled steel structural plates and sections, the C content may be increased to approx. 0.30%, w/ higher Mn content up to 1.5%. These materials may be used for stampings, forgings, seamless tubes and boiler plates. 0.1-0.2% C : chain, rivets, nails, wire, pipe where very soft, plastic steel is needed. 0.2- 0.3% C : structural steels, machine parts, soft and tough steels

Medium Carbon Steel

Have carbon concentrations between 0.3% - 0.80%

Maybe treated by austenitizing, quenching and then tempering to improve their mechanical properties.

Advantages of Medium-C Steels

Machinability is 60-70% Good toughness and ductility. Fair formability. Extremely popular and have numerous applications. Responds to heat treatment but is often used in the natural condition.

A good balance of properties can be found. That is optimum C level where high toughness and ductility ( of the low C steels) is compromised with the strength and hardness of the increased C.

APPLICATIONS

0.3 0.4%C : 0.4 0.5%C :

lead screws, gears, spindles, shafts and machine parts. crankshafts, gears, axles, mandrels, tool shanks and heat-treated machine parts

0.6 0.7% C:

called low carbon tool steel and is used where a keen edge is not necessary but where shock strength is wanted: drop hammer dies, set screws, screw drivers tough and hard steel. Band saws, Hammers, wrenches, cable wire Etc.

0.7 0.8%C :

High Carbon Steels

Normally having C content between 0.8% to 1.4%

Are the hardest, strongest and yet least ductile of the carbon steels.

Advantages of High-C Steels

Hardness is high
Wear resistance is high Fair formability Capable of holding a sharp cutting edge

Disadvantages of High-C Steels

Toughness and formability and hardenability are quite low. Not recommended for welding. Usually joined by brazing with low temperature silver alloy making it possible to repair or fabricate tool-steel parts without affecting their heat-treated condition.

APPLICATIONS

Drills, saw, planer tools, embossing dies, cutlery, cutting tools, concrete drills, blacksmith tools, woodworking tools.

Tool and die steels are high C steels, usually containing Cr, V, W and Mo. These alloying elements combine with C to form very hard and wear resistant carbide compounds ( Cr23C6, V4C3, WC )

ALLOY STEELS

Steels that exceed the element limits of C steels. Also includes steels that contain elements not found in C steels such as Ni, Cr ( up to 3.99%), Co etc. Common alloying elements : Ni, Cr, V, Si, and W.
One or more elements maybe added to the steel during manufacturing process to produce the desired characteristics.

May be produced in structural sections, sheets, plates and bars for use in the as rolled condition. Are used in structures where the strength of material is especially important.

APPLICATIONS
Bridge members, railroad cars, dump bodies, dozer blades and crane booms.

COMMON ALLOY STEELS

1). 2). 3). 4). 5). 6). Chromium steels Nickel Steels Chrome-vanadium steel Tungsten steel Molybdenum steel Manganese steel

Chromium Steels
Steel + Cr to improve hardening ability, wear resistance and strength. Contain between 0.20-0.75% Cr Some are highly resistant to wear that they are used for the races and balls in antifriction bearings. Are highly resistant to corrosion and to scale.

Nickel Steels
Contain from 3.5%-5% Ni. Ni increases the strength and toughness of steel. More than 5% Ni increases resistance to corrosion and to scale. Used in the manufacture of aircraft parts such as propellers and airframe support members.

Chrome Vanadium Steel

Has the maximum amount of strength with the least amount of weight. Contains from 0.15% to 0.25% V, 0.6% to 1.5% Cr and 0.1 to 0.6% C. Is used in the manufacture of crankshafts, gears, axles and other items that requires high strength. Also used in the manufacture of high quality hand tools, such as wenches and sockets.

Tungsten Steel
A special alloy that has the property of red hardness, that is, the ability to continue to cut after it becomes red hot. A good grade contains 13%-19% W, 1%-2% V, 3%-5% Cr, and 0.6 to 0.80% C. Because this alloy is expensive to produce, its use is largely restricted to the manufacture of drills, lathe tools, milling cutters and similar cutting tools.

Molybdenum Steel
Used as an alloying agent for steel in combination with Cr and Ni. Mo adds toughness to the steel. Can be used in place of tungsten to make the cheaper grades of high speed steel and in carbon molybdenum high pressure tubing.

STAINLESS STEELS
Highly

resistant to corrosion in a wide variety of environment Predominant alloying element is Cr, at least 11% wt of Cr. Corrosion resistance may be enhanced by the addition of Ni and Mo. Very versatile in their applicability because of their wide range of mechanical properties combine with excellent resistance to corrosion.

IRON ALLOY PHASES

Austenite (-iron; hard) Bainite Martensite Cementite (iron carbide; Fe3C) Ledeburite (ferrite - cementite eutectic, 4.3% carbon) Ferrite (-iron; soft) Pearlite (88% ferrite, 12% cementite)

AUSTENITE Is a FCC form of iron in which some C is dissolved. It forms above the critical temperature.
MARTENSITE A BCC form of iron in which some C is dissolved. It forms during quenching, when FCC austenite changes to the BCC structure w/o precipitation of cementite. Instead, the C is retained in the Fe crystal structure. Is also defined as a hardened microstructure of steel that is obtained by quick cooling, avoiding the formation of pearlite.

CEMENTITE Is Iron Carbide, Fe3C FERRITE Is a BCC form of iron in which some C is dissolved.

Steel cooled at a rate of about 400oC/ min

transform austenite to pearlite at 727oC

Faster cooling produces martensite.

3 CLASSES OF STAINLESS STEELS

(1) Ferritic Steels (2) Austenitic Steels
(3) Martensitic Steels

Martensite

most commonly refers to a form of ferrite supersaturated with carbon found in very hard steels, for use in such products as springs and piano wire. The martensite is formed by rapid cooling (quenching) of austenite which traps carbon atoms that do not have time to diffuse out of the crystal structure. Martensite is usually considered to be a grain structure not a phase. For this reason, martensite is not shown in the equilibrium phase diagram of the iron-carbon system. It consists of grains of ferrite supersaturated with carbon

Ferrite
or alpha iron (-Fe) is a materials science term for iron, or a solid solution with iron as the main constituent, with a body centred cubic crystal structure. It is the component which gives steel and cast iron their magnetic properties, and is the classic example of a ferromagnetic material.

In pure iron, ferrite is stable below 910C.

Above this temperature the face-centered cubic form of iron, austenite (gamma-iron) is stable. Above 1390C, up to the melting point at 1534C, the body-centred cubic crystal structure is again the more stable form (delta-iron).

FERRITIC STEEL
16-18% chromium; rustless iron with low carbon content Has high resistance to corrosion but low impact and cannot be refined by heat-treatment alone. Prolonged service at 480C can cause embrittlement. Used for trim moldings and decorative applications.

25-30% chromium iron for furnace parts; resistant to sulphur compounds. Has low amount of carbon to chromium ratio; therefore hardening by heat-treating is not done.

ADVANTAGES: Readily weldable Cheapest of the stainless steels. Magnetic Hardened and strengthened by cold work; not heat treatable. Easiest of all to machine.

DISADVANTAGES: Poor ductility. Poor formability because of the bcc crystal structure.

AUSTENITIC STEELS
Best corrosive resistance, but hardenable only by cold working. Not heat treatable, but cold workable. With both nickel and chromium, the fcc austenite is stabilized at room temperature to produce a stainless steel. Most corrosion resistant because of the high Cr content and Ni addition

ADVANTAGES: Best corrosive resistance, Highest of all for strength at high temperatures, Best of all for ductility at low temperatures. Nonmagnetic Highly resistant to chemical corrosion, mirror polish, Attractive appearance. Formability is outstanding characteristic of the fcc. Strengthen drastically when cold worked

DISADVANTAGES: Corrosive in hydrochloric acid and other halide acids and salts. Most expensive

MARTENSITIC STEELS
High amount of carbon to chromium ratio therefore can be heat treated. More corrosive resistant than ferrite, but still corrosive. This material can be austenitic at high temperatures. At the high temperature, carbon can be dissolved in the fcc austenite, which in turn is quenched to form a bcc martenitic structure. So the steel is austenitized, quenched, then stress relief tempered.

ADVANTAGES: Increase in strength more corrosive resistant than Ferritic ability to hold an edge good for impact

DISADVANTAGES May be susceptible to red rust when annealed for machining or fabrication. Cost 1 times more than the Ferritic stainless steels.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL

(@25oC)
PROPERTIES CARBON STEELS ALLOY STEELS
STAINLESS

STEELS

TOOL STEELS

Density ( 1000 kg/m3)

Elastic Modulus ( GPa) Thermal Conductivity ( W/m-K) Electrical Resistivity (10-9 W-m) Tensile Strength(MPa)

7.85
190-210 24.3-65.2 130-1250 276-1882

7.85
190-210 26-48.6 210-1251 758-1882

7.75-8.1
190-210 11.2-36.7 75.7-1020 515-827

7.72-8.0
190-210 19.9-48.3

640-2000

Yield Strength ( MPa)

Percent Elongation(%)

186-758
10-32

366-1793
4-31

207-552
12-40

380-440
5-25

Stainless steels have higher resistance to oxidation (rust) and corrosion in many natural and man made environments; however, it is important to select the correct type and grade of stainless steel for the particular application.

High oxidation resistance in air at ambient temperature is normally achieved with additions of a minimum of 13% (by weight) chromium, and up to 26% is used for harsh environments. The chromium forms a passivation layer of chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3) when exposed to oxygen. The layer is too thin to be visible, meaning the metal stays shiny. It is, however, impervious to water and air, protecting the metal beneath. Also, when the surface is scratched this layer quickly reforms. This phenomenon is called passivation and is seen in other metals, such as aluminium and titanium.

When stainless steel parts such as nuts and bolts are forced together, the oxide layer can be scraped off causing the parts to weld together. When disassembled, the welded material may be torn and pitted, an effect that is known as galling. Nickel also contributes to passivation, as do other less commonly used ingredients such as molybdenum and vanadium.

EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

Usually only a small amount of alloying element are added to steels (usually less than 5%). Mostly the purpose is: 1. to improve the hardenability and 2. strength corrosion resistance, 3. stability at high/low temperatures, 4. control grain size

EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

Manganese - increases ductility, hardenability, high strain hardening capacity, slightly strengthens, excellent wear resistance

Sulfur
Nickel

- if carefully proportioned can add machinability without imparting embrittlement

- increases toughness and impact resistance, good properties at low temperatures. With other alloys imparts excellent corrosion resistance. Increase strength with little loss of ductility

Chromium - if added in large enough amounts can impart corrosion resistance and heat resistance and

Molybdenum - improves hardenability and increases strength primarily under dynamic and high temperature conditions. Extremely stable at elevated temperatures. It helps to retains fine grain sizes which provides strength and creep resistance at elevated temperatures. Molybdenum carbides are used in hot work tool steels and forging dies to impart hardness even at red heat. Vanadium like molybdenum, forms strong carbides at elevated temperatures. Also limits grain size.

Tungsten-

used in tool steels to maintain their hardness at elevated temperatures.

increases the corrosion resistance. Limits have to be controlled or itll sacrifice surface quality and hot-working behavior.

Copper -

Silicon - increases strength without limiting grain size* Used to promote large grain sizes used in magnetic applications. Used in spring steels. Boron - very important harden ability agent being several hundred times better than nickel, molybdenum and chromium. Used more for low carbon steels. Also improve machinability and cold forming.

*Limits on grain size can effectively increase strength properties like elastic limit, yield point, and impact strength (toughness) with little loss of ductility.

CARBON STEEL Summary of Properties

Mild (low carbon) steel: with up to 0.4% manganese content Less strong but cheap and easy to shape; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing. Medium carbon steel: with 0.60 to 1.65% manganese content. Balances ductility and strength and has good wear resistance; used for large parts, forging and automotive components High carbon steel: with 0.30 to 0.90% manganese content. Very strong, used for springs and high-strength wires.

TOOL STEELS
refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that are particularly well-suited to be made into tools. Their suitability comes from their distinctive toughness, resistance to abrasion, their ability to hold a cutting edge, and/or their resistance to deformation at elevated temperatures (redhardness). With a carbon content between 0.7% and 1.4%, tool steels are manufactured under carefully controlled conditions to produce the required quality.

HSLA ( High Strength Low Alloy ) Steel

is a type of steel alloy that provides many benefits over regular steel alloys. In general, HSLA alloys are much stronger and tougher than ordinary plain-carbon steels. They are used in cars, trucks, cranes, bridges, and other structures that are designed to handle large amounts of stress, often at very low temperatures.

HSLA steels are so called because they only contain a very small percentage of carbon. A typical HSLA steel may contain 0.15% carbon, 1.65% manganese and low levels (under 0.035%) of phosphorus and sulphur. It may also contain small amounts of copper, nickel, niobium, nitrogen, vanadium, chromium, molybdenum, silicon, or zirconium. are also referred to as "microalloyed", as they are indeed alloyed in extremely small amounts by comparison to other main commercial alloy steels.

Ferrous Metals & Alloys

Steel Low alloy Low-C Plain High-strength, Medium-C Plain Heat treatable High-C Plain Tool Tool High Alloy Cast Irons Gray cast iron Ductile ( nodular ) iron

White Iron
Malleable

Stainless

CAST IRON

Class of ferrous alloys with carbon content above 2.14%wt. In practice, however, most cast irons contain between 3.0% and 4.5% wt C + other alloying elements. Alloys within this composition range becomes completely liquid at temperatures between aprrox. 1150 1300oC, considerably lower than steel. Are easily melted and amenable to casting Some are very brittle that casting is the most convenient fabrication technique.

Iron accounts for more than 95%, while the main alloying elements are carbon and silicon. Cast irons contain appreciable amounts of silicon, normally 1 - 3%, and consequently these alloys should be considered ternary Fe-C-Si alloys. Cast iron tends to be brittle, unless the name of the particular alloy suggests otherwise.

With its low melting point, good fluidity, castability, excellent machinability and wear resistance, cast irons have become an engineering material with a wide range of applications, including pipes, machine and car parts.

(1) GRAY CAST IRON

C and Si content vary from 2.5 4.0% and 1.0 3.0%, respectively. Graphite exists in the form of flakes, which are surrounded by ferrite and pearlite. because of this microstructure, gray iron are comparatively weak and brittle in tension. Strength and ductility are much higher under compressive loads.

Silicon is essential to making of grey cast iron as opposed to white cast iron. Silicon causes the carbon to rapidly come out of solution as graphite, leaving a matrix of relatively pure, soft iron. Weak bonding between planes of graphite lead to a high activation energy for growth in that direction,

resulting in thin, round flakes. This structure has several useful properties.

PROPERTIES
The graphite content offers good corrosion resistance. Graphite acts as a lubricant, improving wear resistance. The exceptionally high speed of sound in graphite gives cast iron a much higher thermal conductivity. Since ferrite is so different in this respect (having heavier atoms, bonded much less tightly) , grey cast iron tends to damp mechanical vibrations (including sound), which can help machinery to run more smoothly.

All of the properties mentioned above ease the machining of grey cast iron. Grey cast iron has less tensile strength and shock resistance than steel. It is also difficult to weld.

(2) DUCTILE (Nodular) IRON

Gray iron + small amount of Mg and/or Cerium before casting. A distinctly different microstructure is produced -- and set of mechanical properties. Graphite still forms but in nodules or sphere like particles. Stronger and more ductile than gray iron. Has mechanical properties approaching that of steel.

APPLICATIONS: Automotive and machine components, gears, valves etc.

(3) WHITE IRON

Low silicon cast iron ( less than 1.0%), and rapid cooling rates, most of the C exists as cementite instead of graphite. A fracture surface of this alloy has a white appearance, thus termed as white iron. As a consequence of its large amount of cementite phase, white iron is extremely hard, very brittle to the point of being unmachinable. Its use is very limited to applications that necessitate a very hard and wear resistant surface without a high degree of ductility. Example of its application Rollers in rolling mills

(4) MALLEABLE IRON

Heating white iron at temps between 800-900oC for a prolonged time period and in a neutral atmosphere causes the decomposition of cementite, forming graphite, which exists in the form of clusters or rosettes. Relatively high strength and appreciable ductility or malleability. Applications: Pipe fittings, valve parts for railroad, marine and heavy duty applications, transmissions, gears etc.