OFDM AND OFDMA TECHNOLOGIES

OUTLINE
NEED FOR MULTI-CARRIER

OFDM ENTERS INTO THE PICTURE

FFT

/ IFFT GUARD TIME INSERTION OFDM DRAWBACKS CHANNEL ESTIMATION OFDM BLOCK DIAGRAM
SIMULATION RESULTS

NEED FOR MULTICARRIER

Time Domain Analysis

NEED FOR MULTICARRIER cont.

Pulse completely distorted. ISI is significant in this case.

Pulse extended but the extension are much smaller than T the output behaves like the transmitted rectangular pulse.

NEED FOR MULTICARRIER cont.

Frequency Domain Analysis

NEED FOR MULTICARRIER cont.

Conclusion Wide pulses is needed for simple equalization, But Narrow pulses is needed for high data rate

Solution Multiplexing

NEED FOR MULTICARRIER cont.

NEED FOR MULTICARRIER cont.

Problem

Solution
Orthogonality

NEED FOR MULTI-CARRIER

cont.

NEED FOR MULTI-CARRIER

cont.

OFDM ENTERS INTO THE PICTURE

Interference Orthogonality B.W efficiency Min Separation

OFDM ENTERS INTO THE PICTURE cont.

Min Separation Problem

Difficult Implementation with traditional oscillators

Solution
DFT But DFT needs high processing Solution Easy implementation using FFT/IFFT

FFT / IFFT
IFFT DAC Channel
FFT ADC

FFT/IFFT

GUARD TIME INSERTION

Channel Filtering

X1 X2 . . Xn hv . h1 h0 Y1 Y2 . . Yn

GUARD TIME INSERTION

cont.
Problem

X1 X2

. Xn X1 X2 . . Xn

hv . h1 h0
Y1 Y2 . Yv Yv+1 Yv+2

Yn

ISI occurs

GUARD TIME INSERTION

cont.
Solution Cyclic Prefix

X1

. Xn

Xnv+1

Xn

X1

X2

Xn

hv . h1 h0
Y1 Y2 . Yv Yv+1 Yv+2

Yn

No ISI Circular Convolution achieved.

Cyclic prefix

The CP allows the receiver to absorb much more efficiently the delay spread due to the multipath and to maintain frequency Orthogonality. The CP that occupies a duration called the Guard Time (GT), often denoted TG, is a temporal redundancy that must be taken into account in data rate computations.

OFDM DRAWBACKS cont.

Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAPR)

OFDM DRAWBACKS cont.

Sensitivity to frequency offset

CHANNEL ESTIMATION
Pilot Based Channel Estimation
Received Signal after FFT Estimated Channel Response

Pilot Signal Extraction

Pilot Signal Estimation

Lowpass FIR Filter

Known Pilots

CHANNEL ESTIMATION
cont.
Frequency( sub carriers)

Pilot Arrangement Types

Block Pilot Patterns

Comb Pilot Patterns

Frequency( sub carriers)
Time (OFDM Symbols)
rapid changing channels

Pilot symbols Data symbols

Time (OFDM Symbols) High channel frequency selectivity

OFDMA

OFDMA is a multiple access method based on OFDM signaling that allows simultaneous transmissions to and from several users along with the other advantages of OFDM.

OFDM versus OFDMA

IEEE802.16d Fixed WiMAX,256-OFDM

IEEE802.16e Mobile WiMAX

DIVERSITY AND MIMO PRINCIPLES

What is diversity?
Is a technique that combats the fading by ensuring that there will be many copies of the transmitted signal effected with different fading over time, frequency or space.
Diversity types

Time diversity

Frequency diversity

Spatial diversity

1- Time diversity:
We averaging the fading of the channel over time by using : 1-The channel coding and interleaving. 2-Or sending the data at different times. to explain this we will see an example:

1-time diversity:
|H(t)|

No interleaving x1 x2 x3 x4 y1 y2 y3 y4 z1 z2 z3 z4 h1 h2 h3

h4 interleaving h4

x1 y1 z1 h1 x2 y2 z2 h2 x3 y3 z3 h3 x4 y4 z4

So we can see that only the 3rd symbol from each codeword lost and we can recover them from the rest symbols in each codeword.

2- frequency diversity:
This type of diversity used for the frequency selective channels as we will averaging the fading over the frequency by using: 1-Multi-carrier technique like OFDM. 2-FHSS (frequency hope spread spectrum). 3-DSSS (direct sequence spread spectrum).

2- frequency diversity:

We can see that each sub-band will effecting with different fading over the frequency.

3-spatial diversity:
we will have many copies of the transmitted signal effects with different fading over the space . we use multi-antenna systems at the transmitter or the receiver or at both of them.

Spatial diversity

MISO

SIMO

MIMO

MIMOMU

Receive diversity:

1-The receiver will has many antennas . 2-Each one has signal effecting with different fading. 3-number of different paths =Mr.

Diversity order=Mr

MIMO:

In this type we use multi antennas at both the transmitter and receiver as shown.

Diversity order=Mt x Mr

Notes:
The higher diversity order we have the better we combat the fading

Notes:
1-The diversity reduces the BER of the communication system. 2-Diversity order BER .

Notes:

The distance between the antennas must be larger than the coherent distance to ensure that data streams are not correlated .

Question?
How the receiver get the signal from the many copies reached ?

Answer
Diversity combining techniques

Selective combining SC

Maximal ratio combining MRC

Equal gain combining EGC

Diversity combining technique

1-Combines the independent fading paths signals to obtain a signal that passed through a standard demodulator. 2-The techniques can be applied to any type of diversity. 3-combining techniques are linear as the output of is a weighted sum of the different fading signals of branches. 4-It needs co-phasing.

Diversity combining technique

Fading of the path

The signal output from the combiner is the transmitted signal s(t) multiplied by a random complex amplitude term

Type of technique

Diversity order Random SNR from the combiner

Diversity combining technique

Types of combining techniques

Selection combining

Threshold combining

Maximal ratio combining

Equal gain combining

selection combining technique

1-the combiner outputs the signal on the branch with the highest SNR . 2-no need here for the co-phasing.

Threshold combining technique

As in SC since only one branch output is used at a time and outputting the first signal with SNR above a given threshold so that cophasing is not required.
Does not take the largest SNR so that its performance less than the SC technique.

Special case at diversity order =2 (SSC)

Maximal ratio combining

In maximal ratio combining (MRC) the output is a weighted sum of all branches due to its SNR

h1*

h2*

h3*

hi*

Equal gain combining technique

A simpler technique is equal-gain combining, which co-phases the signals on each branch and then combines them with equal weighting

MIMO
Traditional diversity is based on multiple receiver antennas Multiple-In Multiple-Out (MIMO) is based on both transmit and receive diversity Also known as Space Time Coding (STC) With Mt transmission antennas and Mr receiver antennas we have Mt Mr branches Tx and Rx processing is performed over space (antennas) and time (successive symbols)

47

MIMO or STC

In Mobile communication systems it may be difficult to put many antennas in the mobile unit Diversity in the downlink (from base station to mobile station) can be achieved by Multiple-In Single-Out (MISO) (i.e., Mr=1) In the uplink (from mobile station to base station) diversity is achieved my conventional diversity (SIMO) Hence, all diversity cost is moved to the base station All 3G and 4G mobile communication system employ MIMO in their standard
48

Type of MIMO

Two major types of space time coding

Space time block coding (STBC) Space time trellis coding (STTC)

STBC is simpler by STTC can provide better performance STBC is used in mobile communications. STTC is not used in any systems yet We will talk only about STBC

49

Space Time Block Codes

There are few major types

Transmit diversity: main goal is diversity gain Spatial multiplexing: main goal is increase data rate Eigen steering: main goal is both. Requires knowledge of the channel at the transmitter side Mix of the above: Lots of research

Transmit diversity, spatial multiplexing and simplified version of Eigen steering are used in 3G and 4G standards While in 3G standards MIMO was an enhancement, in 4G MIMO is a main part
50

Transmit Diversity
Take Mt=2 and Mr=1 Two symbols so and s1 are transmitted over two transmission periods No change in data rate (denoted as rate 1 STBC) Channel is known at receiver only

51

Transmit Diversity

Transmission matrix:

Ant o

Ant1

s o s1 Timeo S * * s1 s o Time1 Transmission matrix columns are orthogonal to guarantee simple linear processing at the receiver Other transmission matrices are defined in literature Received signal is: ro s o s1 g o no R * * r1 s1 s o g 1 n1
Performance is same as MRC with M=2 However, if Tx Power is the same, then transmit diversity (2x1) is 3 dB worse than (1x2)
52

Transmit Diversity

Take Mt=2 and Mr=2 Performance is the same as MRC with M=4 However, if Tx Power is the same, then transmit diversity (2x2) is 3 dB worse than (1x4)

53

Performance
MRRC=Maximal Ratio Receiver Combining Note 3 dB difference in favor of Rx MRC diversity Reference: S. Alamouti, a simple transmit diversity technique for wireless communications, IEEE JSAC, October 98

No diversity

Order 2
Order 4

54

Spatial Multiplexing
ro s o g o s 1 g 1 r1 s o g 2 s 1 g 3

Purpose is to increase data rate (2x2 gives twice data rate) The 4 gains must be known at receiver Simplest way zero forcing algorithm:
g 1 s o s g3 1
G

ro g o r g 1 2

o r 1 s H H o G G G s 1 r1
55

Spatial Multiplexing
ro s o g o s 1 g 1 r1 s o g 2 s 1 g 3

Optimum method: Maximum Likelihood

Try all combinations of s1 and s2 Find the combination that minimizes the squared error:

o g o s 1 g 1 r1 s o g 2 s 1 g 3 e e ro s
2 o 2 1

Complexity increases with high order modulation

56

Performance

Equal rate comparison

Reference: David Gesbert, Mansoor Shafi, Da-shan Shiu, Peter J. Smith, and Ayman Naguib, From theory to practice: an overview of MIMO spacetime coded wireless systems, IEEE JSAC, April 2003

Zero forcing

ML

Alamouti

57

Eigenvalue Steering

Assume a MIMO system

58

Eigenvalue Steering

Example with Mt = 2 and Mr=4

y 1 h11 h12 n1 y H x n y h x n h 22 1 2 21 2 n y 3 h31 h32 x 2 3 y 4 h41 h42 n 4 H be represented using Any matrix H can Singular Value Decomposition as H U V H U is Mr by Mr and V is Mt by Mt unitary matrices is Mr by Mt diagonal matrix, elements i
59

Eigenvalue Steering
Using transmit pre-coding and receiver shaping

y U H H x n U H U V
H

x n

U H U V H V x n U H U V H V x U H n x n
60

Eigenvalue Steering
This way we created r paths between the Tx and specific Rx without any cross interference The channel (i.e., Channel State Information) must be known to both transmitter and receiver The value of r = rank of matrix H, r min(Mt, Mr) Not all r paths have good SNR Data rate can increase by factor r See Appendix C for Singular Value Decomposition See Matlab function [U,S,V] = svd(X)

61

Example

Reference: Sanjiv Nanda, Rod Walton, John Ketchum, Mark Wallace, and Steven Howard, A high-performance MIMO OFDM wireless LAN, IEEE Communication Magazine, February 2005

62

INTRODUCTION TO LTE AND ITS

UNIQUE TECHNOLOGIES.

What is LTE??
The 3GPP LTE is acronym for long term evolution of UMTS . In order to ensure the competitiveness of UMTS for the next 10 years and beyond, concepts for UMTS Long Term Evolution (LTE) have been introduced in 3GPP release 8. LTE is also referred to as EUTRA (Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access) or E-UTRAN (Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network)

What is LTE(cont.)?
The architecture that will result from this work is

called EPS (Evolved Packet System) and comprehends E-UTRAN (Evolved UTRAN) on the access side and EPC (Evolved Packet Core) on the core side. Can be considered the real 3.9G & invited to join the 4G family. Also considered a competitive system to mobile WiMAX as we will show

What is LTE (cont.)?

LTE DESIGN TARGETS

(a) capabilities:

Scalable BW: 1.25, 2.5, 5.0, 10.0 and 20.0 MHz. Peak data rate:
Downlink (2 Ch MIMO) peak rate of 100 Mbps in 20 MHz channel Uplink (single Ch Tx) peak rate of 50 Mbps in 20 MHz channel

Supported antenna configurations:

Downlink: 4x4,4x2, 2x2, 1x2, 1x1 Uplink: 1x2, 1x1 Duplexing modes: FDD and TDD

Number of active mobile terminals:

LTE should support at least 200 mobile terminals in the active state when operating in 5 MHz. In wider allocations than 5 MHz, at least 400 terminals should be supported

Spectrum efficiency
Downlink: 3 to 4 x HSDPA Rel. 65bits/s/Hz Uplink: 2 to 3 x HSUPA Rel. 62.5bits/s/hz

Latency
C-plane: <50 100 msec to establish U-plane U-plane: <10 msec from UE to server

Mobility
Optimized for low speeds (<15 km/hr) High performance at speeds up to 120 km/hr Maintain link at speeds up to 350 km/hr

Coverage
Full performance up to 5 km Slight degradation 5 km 30 km Operation up to 100 km should not be precluded by standard

INTRODUCTION TO LTE KEY TECHNOLOGIES

(1)OFDM and OFDMA:

One of the key technologies used in LTE and WiMAX systems. The problem ???
Due to the multipath the signal is received from many paths with different phases that will result in DELAY SPREAD :symbol received along a delayed path to bleed into a subsequent symbol (ISI)

FREQUENCY SELECTIVE FADING: : some frequencies within the signal passband undergo constructive interference while others encounter destructive interference.The composite received signal is distorted

Old solutions of multipath fading include direct channel

equalization or spread spectrum techniques(complex receiver is needed).

OFDM:
OFDM systems break the available bandwidth into many narrower sub-carriers and transmit the data in parallel streams each OFDM symbol is preceded by a cyclic prefix (CP), which is used to effectively eliminate ISI.

In practice, the OFDM signal can be generated using IFFT with a CP of sufficient duration, preceding symbols do not spill over into the FFT period and also this satisfy that the output convolution with channel is complex gain multiplication. Also, Once the channel impulse response is determined (by periodic transmission of known reference signals), distortion can be corrected by applying an amplitude and phase shift on a subcarrierby-subcarrier basis. Problems of OFDM are: susceptibility to carrier frequency errors (due either to local oscillator offset or Doppler shifts) and a large signal peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR).

OFDMA

OFDMA is a multiple access method based on OFDM signaling that allows simultaneous transmissions to and from several users along with the other advantages of OFDM.

OFDM versus OFDMA

IEEE802.16d Fixed WiMAX,256-OFDM

IEEE802.16e Mobile WiMAX

(2) Multi antenna transmission

LTE and WiMAX targets extreme performance in terms of

Capacity Coverage Peak data rates

Advanced multi-antenna solutions is the key tool to achieve this Multi antenna systems are integral part of those systems Different antenna solutions needed for different scenarios/targets
High peak data rates spatial multiplexing Good coverage Beam-forming High performanceDiversity

(3)Hybrid ARQ with soft combining

used in LTE and WiMAX to allow the terminal to rapidly request retransmissions of erroneously received transport blocks. The underlying protocol multiple parallel stop-and-wait hybrid ARQ processes Incremental redundancy is used as the soft combining strategy and the receiver buffers the soft bits to be able to do soft combining between transmission attempts.

(1)Spectrum flexibility:
A high degree of spectrum flexibility is one of the main characteristics of the LTE radio access. The aim of this spectrum flexibility is to

allow for the deployment of the LTE radio access in diverse spectrum.

The flexibility includes:

Different duplex arrangements. Different frequency-bands-of-operation. Different sizes of the available spectrum.

(a) 3G LTE Duplex arrangement

(b) 3G LTE Bandwidth flexibility

LTE physical layer supports any bandwidth from 1.25 MHz to well beyond 20 MHz in steps of 200 kHz (one Resource Block)

(2) Channel-dependent scheduling and rate adaptation

LTE use of shared-channel transmission, in which the time-frequency resource is dynamically shared between users.

(3)Interference coordination(soft reuse)

Adaptive reuse

Cell-center users: Reuse = 1 Cell-edge users: Reuse > 1

Applicable for both downlink OFDM and uplink SC-FDMA

Relies on access to frequency domain

(4)SC-FDMA: LTE uplink requirements differ from downlink

requirements.
power consumption is a key consideration for UE

terminals. The high PAPR and related loss of efficiency associated with OFDM signaling are major concerns.

As a result, an alternative to OFDM was sought for use

in the LTE uplink. Single Carrier Frequency Domain Multiple Access (SC-FDMA) is well suited to the LTE uplink requirements. The basic transmitter and receiver architecture is very similar (nearly identical) to OFDMA, and it offers the same degree of multipath protection. because the underlying waveform is essentially single-

 Basic

block diagram:

transmitter :a QAM modulator coupled with the addition

of the cyclic prefix. This will eliminate ISI as OFDMA

Reciever:

by using FFT & CP simple equalizer are used (as OFDM). Multipath distortion is handled in the same manner as in OFDM(removal of CP, conversion to the frequency domain, then apply the channel correction on a subcarrierby subcarrier basis).

LTE practical SC-FDMA :-

The practical transmitter is likely to take advantage of FFT/IFFT blocks as well to place the transmission in the correct position of the transmit spectrum in case of variable transmission bandwidth.

SC-FDMA receiver

Frequency domain equalization (FDE) using DFT/IDFT is more practical for such channels.

The fact of transmitting only a single symbol at a time ensures a low transmitter waveform, compared with the OFDMA case. The resulting PAR/CM impact on the amplifier is thus directly dependent on the modulation, whereas with the OFDMA case it is the amount of subcarriers. SC-FDMA subcarriers can be mapped in one of two ways: localized or distributed However, the current working assumption is that LTE will use localized subcarrier mapping. This decision was motivated by the fact that with localized mapping, it is possible to exploit frequency selective gain via channel dependent scheduling (assigning uplink frequencies to UE based on favorable propagation conditions).

(5) LTE Multicast/Broadcast

MBMS Multimedia Broadcast/Multicast Service OFDM allows for high-efficient MBSFN operation
Multicast/Broadcast Single-Frequency Networking Identical transmissions from set of tightly synchronized cells Increased received power and reduced interference

Substantial boost of MBMS system throughput LTE allows for multicast/broadcast and unicast on the same carrier as well as dedicated multicast/broadcast carrier

LTE RADIO INTERFACE ARCHITECTURE

Introduction
Similar to WCDMA/HSPA, as well as to most other modern communication systems, the processing specified for LTE is structured into different protocol layers. note that the LTE radio-access architecture consists of a single node the eNodeB. The eNodeB communicates with one or several mobile terminals, also known as UEs

Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP)

performs IP header compression to reduce the number of bits to transmit over the radio interface. The header compression mechanism is based on Robust Header Compression (ROHC)a standardized headercompression algorithm also used in WCDMA PDCP is also responsible for ciphering and integrity protection of the transmitted data. At the receiver side, the PDCP protocol performs the corresponding deciphering and decompression operations. There is one PDCP entity per SAE bearer configured for a mobile terminal

Radio Link Control (RLC)

is responsible for segmentation/concatenation, retransmission handling, and in-sequence delivery to higher layers. Unlike WCDMA, the RLC protocol is located in the eNodeB since there is only a single type of node in the LTE radioaccess-network architecture. The RLC offers services to the PDCP in the form of radio bearers . There is one RLC entity per radio bearer configured for a terminal.

Medium Access Control (MAC)

handles hybrid-ARQ retransmissions and uplink and downlink scheduling. The scheduling functionality is located in the eNodeB, which has one MAC entity per cell, for both uplink and downlink. The hybrid-ARQ protocol part is present in both the transmitting and receiving end of the MAC protocol. The MAC offers services to the RLC in the form of logical channels .

MAC scheduling

The basic operation of the scheduler is so-called dynamic scheduling, where the eNodeB in each 1 ms TTI makes a scheduling decision and sends scheduling information to the selected set of terminal.

Downlink scheduling

UL scheduling

dynamically controlling the terminal(s) to transmit to the set of resource blocks upon which the terminals DL-SCH should be transmitted. Transport-format selection(selection of transport-block size, modulation scheme, and antenna mapping) And logical-channel multiplexing for downlink transmissions

dynamically control which mobile terminals are to transmit on their UL-SCH and on which uplink time/frequency resources uplink scheduling decision is taken per mobile terminal and not per radio bearer.

Physical Layer (PHY)

handles coding/decoding, modulation/demodulation, multi-antenna mapping, and other typical physical layer functions. The physical layer offers services to the MAC layer in the form of transport channels

DOWNLINK PHY LAYER OF (LTE)

LTE Generic Frame Structure

The generic frame structure is used with FDD.(TDD is also supported but not the trend). LTE frames are 10 msec in duration. They are divided into 10 subframes, each subframe being 1.0 msec long. Each subframe is further divided into two slots, each of 0.5 msec duration. Slots consist of either 6 or 7 ODFM symbols, depending on whether the normal or extended cyclic prefix is employed.

Different time intervals within the LTE radio-access specification are defined as multiples of a basic time unit Ts = 1/30 720 000. The time intervals can thus also be expressed as Tframe = 307 200 Ts and Tsubframe = 30 720 Ts

OFDMA For LTE Downlink:

OFDMA is an excellent choice of multiplexing scheme for the 3GPP LTE downlink allows the access of multiple users on the available bandwidth. Each user is assigned a specific time-frequency resource. Allocation of PRBs is handled by a scheduling function at the 3GPP base station (eNodeB). The total number of available subcarriers depends on the overall transmission bandwidth of the system. The LTE specifications define parameters for system bandwidths from 1.25 MHz to 20 MHz as shown in Table.

A PRB is defined as consisting of 12 consecutive subcarriers for one slot (0.5 msec) in duration. A PRB is the smallest element of resource allocation assigned by the base station scheduler.

LTE does not employ a PHY preamble to facilitate carrier offset estimate, channel estimation, timing synchronization etc. Instead, special reference signals are embedded in the PRBs

Downlink resource block

the OFDM subcarrier spacing has been chosen to f = 15 kHz. Sampling rate fs =15 000NFFT , where NFFT is the FFT size the sampling rate f NFFT will be a multiple or submultiple of the WCDMA/HSPA chip rate (3.84 Mcps) in the frequency domain the downlink subcarriers are grouped into resource blocks where each resource block consists of 12 consecutive subcarriers. In addition, there is an unused DC-subcarrier in the center of the downlink band. it may be subject to unproportionally high interference, for example, due to localoscillator leakage.

Downlink reference signal

To carry out coherent demodulation of different downlink physical channels, a mobile terminal needs estimates of the downlink channel

Cell-specific downlink reference signals. UE-specific reference signal. MBSFN reference signals

Cell-specific downlink reference signals

consists of known reference symbols inserted within the first and third last OFDM symbol of each slot and with a frequency-domain spacing of six subcarriers the mobile terminal should carry out interpolation/averaging over multiple reference symbols There are 504 different reference-signal sequences defined for LTE, where eachsequence corresponds to one out of 504 different physical-layer cell identities

In case of downlink multi-antenna transmission the mobile terminal should be able to estimate the downlink channel corresponding to each transmit antenna reference-signal structure for each antenna port in case of multiple antenna ports within a cell: In case of two antenna the reference symbols of the second

antenna port are frequency multiplexed with the reference symbols of the first antenna port, with a frequency-domain offset of three subcarriers. In case of four antenna ports ,the reference symbols for the third and fourth antenna ports are frequency multiplexed within the second OFDM symbol of each slot. Note that the reference symbols for antenna port three and four are only transmitted within one OFDM symbol

UE-specific reference signals

LTE also allows for more general beam-forming. In order to allow for channel estimation also for such transmissions, additional reference signals are needed. As such a reference signal can only be used by the specific terminal to which the beam-formed transmission is intended, it is referred to as a UEspecific reference signal .

LTE block diagram (DL transport channel processing)

(1)CRC insertion:
In the first step of the transport-channel processing, a 24-bit CRC is calculated for and appended to each transport block. The CRC allows for receiver side detection of errors in the decoded transport block. The corresponding error indication is then, for example, used by the downlink hybrid-ARQ protocol as a trigger for requesting retransmissions.

(2)Code-block segmentation and per-code-block CRC insertion:

The LTE Turbo-coder internal interleaver is only defined for a limited number of code-block sizes with a maximum block size of 6144 bits. In case the transport block, including the transport-block CRC, exceeds this maximum code-block size, code-block segmentation is applied before Turbo coding. Code-block segmentation implies that the transport block is segmented into smaller code blocks that match the set of code-block sizes defined for the Turbo coder.

In order to ensure that the size of each code block is matched to the set of available codeblock sizes, filler bits may have to be inserted at the head of the first code An additional (24 bits) CRC is calculated for and appended to each code block. Having a CRC per code block allows for early detection of correctly decoded code blocks. This can be used to reduce the terminal processing effort and power consumption.

(3) FEC(forward error correction):

The UL-SCH uses the same rate 1/3 turbo encoding scheme (two 8state constituent encoders and one internal interleaver) as the DLSCH.

The older interleaver used in HSPA been replaced by QPP based interleaving . the QPP interleaver provides a mapping from the input (noninterleaved) bits to the output (interleaved) bits according to the function:

(4) Rate-matching and physicallayer hybrid-ARQ functionality

The task of the rate-matching and physical-layer hybrid-ARQ functionality is to extract, from the blocks of code bits delivered by the channel encoder, the exact set of bits to be transmitted within a given TTI. The outputs of the Turbo encoder (systematic bits, first parity bits, and second parity bits) are first separately interleaved. The interleaved bits are then inserted into what can be described as a circular buffer with the systematic bits inserted first, followed by alternating insertion of the first and second parity bits.

The bit selection then extracts consecutive bits from the circular buffer

(5) Bit-level scrambling

LTE downlink scrambling implies that the block of code bits delivered by the hybrid-ARQ functionality is multiplied (exclusive-or operation) by a bit-level scrambling sequence (usually a gold code). In general, scrambling of the coded data helps to ensure that the receiver-side decoding can fully utilize the processing gain provided by the channel code

(6) Modulation
The set of modulation schemes supported for the LTE downlink

includes QPSK, 16QAM, and 64QAM. All these modulation schemes are applicable to the DL-SCH, PCH, and MCH transport channels. only QPSK modulation can be applied to the BCH transport channel.

(7) Multi antenna transmission

LTE supports the following multi-antenna transmission schemes or transmission modes , in addition to single-antenna transmission:
Transmit diversity Closed-loop spatial multiplexing including codebookbased beam-forming Open-loop spatial multiplexing

Transmit diversity
LTE transmit diversity is based on Space Frequency Block Coding (SFBC) SFBC implies that consecutive modulation symbols Si and Si+1 are mapped directly on adjacent subcarriers on the first antenna port. On the second antenna port, the swapped and transformed symbols - S*i+1 and Si*are transmitted on the corresponding subcarriers

SFBC/FSTD(combined SFBC Frequency Shift Transmit )and Diversity

Closed loop Spatial multiplexing

spatial multiplexing implies that multiple streams or layers are transmitted in parallel, thereby allowing for higher data rates The LTE spatial multiplexing may operate in two different modes: closed-loop spatial multiplexing and open-loop spatial multiplexing where closed-loop spatial multiplexing relies on more extensive feedback from the mobile terminal.

General beam-forming

closed-loop spatial multiplexing includes beam-forming as a special case when the number of layers equals one. This kind of beamforming can be referred to as codebook-based beam-forming , indicating that
the network selects one pre-coding vector (the beam-forming vector) from a set of pre-defined pre-coding vectors (the codebook ) with the selection, for example, based on the terminal reporting a recommended pre-coding vector. if not following the terminal recommendation, the network must explicitly inform the terminal about what pre-coding vector, from the set of predefined vectors, is actually used for transmission to the terminal.

UPLINK PHY LAYER OF (LTE)

Uplink transmission scheme

LTE uplink transmission is based on so-called DFTS-OFDM transmission Which is a single-carrier transmission scheme that allows for

flexible bandwidth assignment orthogonal multiple access not only in the time domain but also in the frequency domain. the use of a cyclic prefix allows low-complexity frequency-domain equalization at the receiver side.

Transmission According method to

M determines the BW OFDM mod. position of signal is determined

Mapping is applied to consecutive carriers localized

DFT implementation

The DFT size should preferably be constrained to a power of two. However, such a constraint is in direct conflict with a desire to have a high degree of flexibility of the bandwidth that can be dynamically assigned to a mobile terminal for uplink transmission all possible DFT sizes should rather be allowed. For LTE, a middle way has been adopted where the DFT size is limited to products of the integers two, three, and five. For example, DFT sizes of 60, 72, and 96 are allowed but a DFT size of 84 is not allowed. In this way, the DFT can be implemented as a combination of relatively low-complex radix-2, radix-3, and radix-5 FFT processing

Uplink physical resource parameters

Chosen to be aligned, as much as possible, with the corresponding parameters of the OFDM-based LTE downlink
spacing equals 15 kHz resource blocks, consisting of 12 subcarriers Any number of uplink resource blocks ranging from a minimum of 6-110 resource blocks. time-domain structure, the LTE uplink is very similar to the downlink

However, in contrast to the downlink, no unused DC-subcarrier is defined for the LTE uplink

Uplink reference signals

Demodulation reference signals (DRS )

reference signals for channel estimation are also needed for the LTE uplink to enable coherent demodulation of different uplink physical channels

Sounding reference signals (SRS)

are transmitted on the uplink to allow for the network to estimate the uplink channel quality at different frequencies.

Basic principles of uplink DRS transmission

Due to the importance of low power variations for uplink transmissions The principles for uplink reference-signal transmission are different from those of the downlink certain DFTS-OFDM symbols are exclusively used for reference-signal transmission, a reference signal is transmitted within the fourth symbol of each uplink slot

Uplink sequences
Limited power variations in the frequency domain to allow for similar channel-estimation quality for all frequencies. Limited power variations in the time domain to allow for high power-amplifier efficiency. Furthermore, sufficiently many reference-signal sequences of the same length, should be available to easily assigning reference-signal sequences to cells

ZadoffChu sequences

have the property of constant power in both the frequency and the time domain. ZadoffChu sequences are not suitable for direct usage as uplink:
to maximize the number of ZadoffChu sequences and to maximize the number of available uplink reference signals, prime-length ZadoffChu sequences would be preferred. At the same time, the length of the uplink reference-signal sequences should be a multiple of 12 For short sequence lengths, corresponding to narrow uplink transmission bandwidths, relatively few reference-signal sequences would be available

Phase-rotated reference-signal sequences

by cyclically extending different prime-length Zadoff Chu sequences . Additional reference-signal sequences can be derived by applying different linear phase rotations to the same basic reference-signal sequences

sounding reference signals (SRS) estimate the uplink channel quality at different frequencies

A terminal can be configured to transmit SRS at regular intervals ranging from as often as once in every 2 ms (every second subframe) to as infrequently as once in every 160 ms (every 16th frame

the frequency-domain scheduling:

entire frequency band of interest with a single SRS OR narrowband SRS that is hopping in the frequency domain in such a way that a sequence of SRS transmissions jointly covers the frequency band of interest.

Uplink transport-channel processing

uplink transport-channel processing are similar to the corresponding steps of the downlink transport-channel processing no spatial multiplexing or transmit diversity currently defined for the LTE uplink As a consequence, there is also only a single transport block, of dynamic size, transmitted for each TTI.

LTE ACCESS PROCEDURE

LTE cell search

Aim
Acquire frequency and symbol synchronization to a cell. Acquire frame timing of the cell, that is, determine the start of the downlink frame. Determine the physical-layer cell identity of the cell.

two special signals are transmitted on the LTE downlink,

the Primary Synchronization Signal (PSS) Secondary Synchronization Signal (SSS)

a terminal synchronizes to a cell. Once it knew PSS 5ms delay

acquires the physical-layer identity (but not the identity group) of the cell using PSS .

Acquires physical layer identity group using SSS signal

detects the cell frame timing using SSS signal

Once this has been achieved, the terminal has to acquire the cell system information

System information

In LTE, system information is delivered by two different mechanisms relying on two different transport channels
A limited amount of system information, corresponding to the so-called Master Information Block (MIB), is transmitted using the BCH. The main part of the system information, corresponding to different so-called System Information Blocks (SIBs), is transmitted using the downlink shared channel (DLSCH).

Random access
A fundamental requirement for any cellular system is the possibility for the terminal to request a connection setup, commonly referred to as random access . In LTE, random access is used for several purposes, including:

for initial access when establishing a radio link (moving from RRC_IDLE to RRC_CONNECTED; to re-establish a radio link after radio link failure; for handover when uplink synchronization needs to be established to the new cell; to establish uplink synchronization if uplink or downlink data arrives when the terminal is in RRC_CONNECTED and the uplink is not synchronized; as a scheduling request if no dedicated scheduling-request resources have been configured on PUCCH.

The first step consists of transmission of a random-access preamble, allowing the eNodeB to estimate the transmission timing of the terminal. Uplink synchronization is necessary as the terminal otherwise cannot transmit any uplink data.

The second step consists of the network transmitting a timing advance command to adjust the terminal transmit timing, based on the timing estimate in the first step. In addition to establishing uplink synchronization, the second step also assigns uplink resources to the terminal to be used in the third step in the random-access procedure.

The third step consists of transmission of the mobile-terminal identity to the network using the UL-SCH similar to normal scheduled data. The exact content of this signaling depends on the state of the terminal, in particular whether it is previously known to the network or not.

The fourth and final step consists of transmission of a contention-resolution message from the network to the terminal on the DL-SCH. This step also resolves any contention due to multiple terminals trying to access the system using the same random-access resource.

paging
Paging is used for network-initiated connection setup. An efficient paging procedure should allow the terminal to sleep with no receiver processing most of the time and to briefly wake up at predefined time intervals to monitor paging information from the network. In LTE, no separate paging-indicator channel is used

LTE ARCHITECTURE AND SAE

LTE System Architecture

LTE System Architecture cont.

Evolved Radio Access Network (RAN) UE: User Equipment eNB: enhanced Node B -Contains PHY, MAC, RLC (Radio Link Control) , PDCP (Packet Data Control Protocol). eNBs are connected together through the SGW.

LTE System Architecture cont.

Functions of eNodeB: Radio Resources management. Admission control. Enforcement of negotiated UL QoS. Cell information broadcast. Ciphering/deciphering of user and control plane data Compression/decompression of DL/UL user plane packet headers.

LTE System Architecture cont.

Serving Gateway (SGW)

-Routes and forwards user Data Packets. -Mobility anchor for eNB handovers and LTE to other 3GPP systems. (relaying the traffic between 2G/3G systems and PDN GW).

Packet Data Network Gateway (PDN GW)

-Connects UE to external packet data networks (serve IP functions) -Anchor for mobility between 3GPP and non-3GPP technologies such as WiMAX and 3GPP2 (CDMA 1X and EvDO). - Performs policy enforcement , charging support.

 Mobility

LTE System Architecture cont.

Management Entity (MME)

-Manage the UEs mobility. -Idle-mode UE tracking and reachability . -Paging procedure. -Authentication and authorization. - choosing the SGW for a UE at the initial attach -Security negotiations.

OVERVIEW OF LTE ADVANCED

Fundamental requirements for LTE-Advanced

complete fulfillment of all the requirements for IMT-Advanced defined by ITU LTE-Advanced has to fulfill a set of basic backward compatibility requirements

Spectrum coexistence, implying that it should be

possible to deploy LTE-Advanced in spectrum already occupied by LTE with no impact on existing LTE terminals infrastructure, in practice implying that it should be possible to upgrade already installed LTE infrastructure equipment to LTE-Advanced capability terminal implementation

Extended requirements beyond ITU requirements

Support for peak-data up to 1 Gbps in the downlink and 500 Mbps in the uplink. Substantial improvements in system performance such as cell and user throughput with target values significantly exceeding those of IMT-Advanced. Possibility for low-cost infrastructure deployment and terminals. High power efficiency, that is, low power consumption for both terminals and infrastructure. Efficient spectrum utilization, including efficient utilization of fragmented spectrum

Technical components of LTEAdvanced

Wider bandwidth and carrier aggregation Extended multi-antenna solutions Advanced repeaters and relaying functionality Coordinated multi-point transmission

Wider bandwidth and carrier aggregation

LTE-Advanced will be an increase of the maximum transmission bandwidth beyond 20 MHz, perhaps up to as high as 100 MHz or even beyond In case of carrier aggregation, the extension to wider bandwidth is accomplished by the aggregation of basic component carriers of a more narrow bandwidth

Extended multi-antenna solutions

support for spatial multiplexing on the uplink is anticipated to be part of LTE-Advanced extension of downlink spatial multiplexing to more four layers benefits of eight-layer spatial multiplexing are only present in special scenarios where high SINR can be achieved

Coordinated multi-point transmission

Coordinating the transmission from the multiple antennas can be used to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for users far from the antenna for example by transmitting the same signal from multiple sites. Such strategies can also improve the power-amplifier utilization in the network, especially in a lightly loaded network where otherwise some power amplifiers would be idle

Advanced repeaters and relaying functionality

Repeaters simply amplify and forward the received analog signals and are used already today for handling coverage holes. L1 relaysschemes where the network can control the transmission power of the repeater and, for example, activate the repeater only when users are present in the area handled by the repeater intermediate node may also decode and re-encode any received data prior to forwarding it to the served users. This is often referred to as decode-andforward relaying

The proposals could roughly be : categorized into Various concepts for Relay Nodes
UE Dual TX antenna solutions for SU-MIMO and diversity MIMO Scalable system bandwidth exceeding 20 MHz, Potentially up to 100MHz Local area optimization of air interface Nomadic / Local Area network and mobility solutions Flexible Spectrum Usage Cognitive Radio Automatic and autonomous network configuration and operation Enhanced precoding and forward error correction Interference management and suppression Asymmetric bandwidth assignment for FDD Hybrid OFDMA and SC-FDMA in uplink UL/DL inter eNodeB coordinated MIMO

Timeframe
Standardization is expected to be included in 3GPP Release 10 timeframe. The importance and timeframe of LTE Advanced will of course largely depend on the success of LTE itself. If possible LTE-Advanced will be a software upgrade for LTE networks.

Technology Demonstrations
In February 2007 NTT DoCoMo announced the completion of a 4G trial where they achieved a maximum packet transmission rate of approximately 5 Gbit/s in the downlink using 100MHz frequency bandwidth to a mobile station moving at 10 km/h