Welding, Bonding, and Design of Permanent Joints

Introduction

Welding is the process of joining two pieces of metal
together by hammering, pressure or fusion. Filler metal
may or may not be used.

The strongest and most common method of permanently
joining steel components together.

Arc welding is the most important since it is adaptable to
various manufacturing environments and is relatively
cheap.

A weldment is fabricated by welding together a collection
of metal shapes.

Introduction

A pool of molten metal in which the components and
electrode material coalesce, forming a homogeneous whole
(ideally) when the pool later resolidifies.

The materials of components and electrode must be
compatible from the point of view of strength, ductility and
metallurgy.

The form of a welded joint is dictated largely by the layout
of the joined components.

Two most common forms are:
1. The butt joint
2. The fillet joint


Welding Symbols


Figure 9-2
Arc and gas-weld symbols
There 2 general types of welds:
1. Fillet welds for general machine elements.
2. Butt or groove welds for pressure vessels, piping systems,...
There are also others such as: ,

Fillet
groove
Bead
Bead Plug or slot
Plug
or slot
Types Of Welding

Parts to be joined must be arranged so that there is sufficient
clearance for welding operation.

Due to heat, there are metallurgical changes in the parent metal in
the vicinity of the weld.

Residual stresses may be introduced because of clamping or holding.

These residual stresses are not severe enough to cause concern.

A light heat treatment after welding is done to relive these stresses.

When the parts to be welded are thick, a preheating will also be of
benefit.

Figure 9-3
Fillet welds
Figure 9-4
The circle on the weld symbol indicates that the welding is to
go all around.
Figure 9-5
Figure 9-6
Butt and Fillet Welds
where h is the weld throat and l is the length of the weld. Notice that the
value of h does not include the reinforcement.
The reinforcement can be desirable, but it varies somewhat and does
produce stress concentration at point A in the figure. If fatigue loads
exist, it is good practice to grind or machine off the reinforcement.
Stresses in Fillet Welds
At angle u the forces
on each weldment
consists of a normal
force F
n
and a shear
force F
s




sin ,
cos n
s F F
F F
u
u
=
=
Fig. 9-8 illustrates a typical
transverse fillet weld.

In Fig. 9-9 a portion of the
welded joint has been
isolated from Fig. 9-8

Stresses in Fillet Welds
sin (cos sin )
cos (cos sin ) n
s F F
A hl
F F
A hl
u u u
t
u u u
o
+
= =
+
= =
The nominal stresses at the angle
in the weldment, and , are



The von Mises stresse at angle is




max
occurs at = 62.5
o
with a value of
max
= 2.16 F/(hl).
The corresponding values of and , are = 1.196 F/(hl) and =
0.623 F/(hl).

max
can be found by solving the equation [d()/d]=0.
The stationary point occurs at = 67.5
o
with a corresponding
max
=
1.207 F/(hl) and = 0.5 F/(hl).



( )
1 2
2 2
1 2
2 2
2 2
(cos sin cos )
' 3
3(sin sin cos )
F
hl
u u u
o o t
u u u
(
+
= + =
(
+ +

We have no analytical approach that predicts the existing stresses.
The geometry of the fillet is crude by machinery standards.
The approach has been to use a simple and conservative model,
verified by testing as conservative.




Consider the external loading to be carried by shear forces on the
throat area of the weld. By ignoring the normal stress on the throat, the
shearing stresses are inflated sufficiently to render the model
conservative.
Use the distortion energy for significant stresses
Circumscribe typical cases by code
For this model, the basis for weld analysis or design employs


which assumes the entire force F is accounted for by a shear stress in
the minimum throat area.
The approach has been to:
1.414
0.707
F F
hl hl
t = = (9.3)
Notice that this inflates the maximum estimated shear stress by a
factor of 1.414/1.207=1.17.
Further, consider the parallel fillet welds shown in Fig. 9-11 where, as
in Fig.9-8, each weld transmits a force F. However, in the case of Fig. 9-
11, the maximum shear stress is at the minimum throat area and
corresponds to Eq. (9-3).
Under circumstances of combined loading we:

Examine primary shear stresses due to external forces.

Examine secondary shear stresses due to torsional and bending
moments.

Estimate the strength(s) of the parent metal (s).

Estimate the strength of the deposited weld metal.

Estimate the permissible load(s) for parent metal(s).

Estimate permissible load for deposited weld metal.

Stresses in Welded Joints in Torsion
Figure 9-12 illustrates a cantilever of length l welded to a column by 2 fillet
welds.




The reaction at the support
of a cantilever always
consists of shear force V and
a moment reaction M.

The shear force produces a
primary shear in the welds
of magnitude



where A is the throat area of
the welds.



'
V
A
t = (9.4)
The moment at the support
produces secondary shear or
torsion of the welds, and this
stress is given by




where
r: distance from the centroid of
the weld group to the point in
the weld of interest.

J: second polar moment of area
of the group about the centroid
of the group.

"
Mr
J
t = (9.5)
Figure 9-13 shows 2 welds in a group. The rectangles represent the throat
areas of the welds.




Weld 1 has a throat
width b
1
= 0.707 h
1

Weld 2 has a throat
width d
2
= 0.707 h
2

Throat area of both
welds together is
A = A
1
+ A
2
= b
1
d
1
+ b
2
d
2

which is the area to be
used in Eq. (9-4)




The x-axis passes through
the centroid G
1
of the weld
1.

The second moment of
area about this axis is



Similarly, the second
moment of area about an
axis passing through G
1
parallel to the y-axis is



The second polar moment
of areas of weld 1 and weld
2 about their centroids are

3
1 1
12
x
b d
I =
3
1 1
12
y
d b
I =
3 3
1 1 1 1
1
3 3
2 2 2 2
2
12 12
12 12
G x y
G x y
b d d b
J I I
b d d b
J I I
= + = +
= + = +
The centroid G of the weld group is located at



The distances r
1
and r
2
from G
1
and G
2
are respectively given by








( )
( ) ( )
1 2
2
2
1 1
1 2
2 2
2 2 2
r x x y
r y y x x
(
= +

(
= +

1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
Ax A x A y A y
x y
A A
+ +
= =
Using the parallel axis theorem,
the second polar moment of area
of the weld group is
( ) ( )
2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2 G G
J J Ar J A r = + + +
This is the quantity to be used in Eq. (9-5). The distance r must be
measured from G and the moment M computed about G.
The quantities and , which represent the weld width are small and
hence can be neglected.
The terms and Makes J
G1
and J
G2
linear in the weld
width.
Setting weld widths b
1
and d
2
to unity leads to the idea of treating each
fillet weld as line.
The resulting second moment of area is then a unit second polar
moment of area.
The value of J
u
same regardless of weld size.
Since throat width of a fillet weld is 0.707h, the relation between J and
the unit value is


0.707
u
J h J =
(9.6)
3
1
b
3
2
d
3
1 1
12 b d
3
2 2
12 d b
J
u
: is found from table 9.1
Fig. 9-17a shows a cantilever welded to a support by fillet welds at top
and bottom.




9-4 Stresses in Welded Joints in Bending
A FBD diagram of
the beam would
show a shear force V
and a moment
diagram M.

The shear force
produces a primary
shear in the welds of
magnitude




' t =
V
A
The moment M introduces a throat shear stress
component of 0.707 in the welds.

Treating the two welds of Fig. 9-17b as lines we find
the second moment of area to be




2
2
=
u
bd
I
(a)
(b)
The second moment of area I, based on weld throat area, is



The nominal throat shear stress is now found to be




The model gives the coefficient of 1.414, in contrast to the predictions
of Sec.9-2 of 1.197 from distortion energy, or 1.207 from maximum shear.

The second moment of area in Eq. (d) is based on the distance d
between the two welds.




Stresses in Welded Joints in Bending
2
0.707 7
2
0. 07 = =
u
I h
bd
I h
( )
( )
2
2
1.414
0.707 2
t = = =
M d
Mc M
I bd h
h bd
(c)
(d)


The Strength of Welded Joints
The matching of the electrode properties with those of parent metal is
usually not so important as speed, operator appeal, and the appearance of
the completed joint.

The properties of electrodes vary considerably, but Table 9-3 lists the
minimum properties for some electrode classes.



It is preferable, in designing welded components, to select a steel that ill
result in a fast, economical weld.

Best results are obtained for steels having a UNS specifications between
G10140 and G10230.

All these steels have a tensile strength in the hot-rolled condition in the
range of 60 to 70 kpsi.

Permissible stresses are now based on the yield strength of the material
instead of the ultimate strength, and the code permits the use of a variety of
ASTM structural steels having yield strengths varying from 33 to 50 kpsi.

For these ASTM steels, S
y
= 0.5 S
u
.

Table 9-4 lists the formulas specified by the code for calculating these
permissible stresses for various load conditions.



The fatigue stress concentration factors listed in Table 9-5 are
suggested for use. These factors should be used for the parent
metal as well as for the weld metal.
Table 9-6 gives steady-load information and minimum fillet sizes.
Static Loading
Example 9-2 (Textbook)
Table A-20, S
y
= 27.5 kpsi
h =3/8=0.375 in
t = 1/2 in
l = 2 in
CH-9 LEC 41 Slide 41
Dr. A. Aziz Bazoune Chapter 9: Welding,
Bonding, and the Design of Permanent Joints
Example 9-2 (Cont.d)
h =3/8=0.375 in
t = 1/2 in
l = 2 in
Example 9-4 (Textbook)
Table 9-3,
S
y
= 50 kpsi,
S
ut
= 62 kpsi
Table 9-2, pattern 2,
b=3/8 = 0.375 in
and d= 2in
Table A-20,
S
y
= 32 kpsi, S
ut
= 58 kpsi
Eq. 6-21
S
sy
= 0.577 S
y
E6010 electrode
Table 9-3,
S
y
= 50 kpsi,
Given n=3