Strengthening Mechanisms

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D.
Johnson 2004, 2006-2010

1
Dislocations and Strengthening
Mechanisms
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
What are slip systems?
How are strength and dislocation motion related?
How do we increase strength?

How can heating change strength and other properties?

How does dislocation motion occurs?
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2010
2
Dislocation Motion
Produces plastic deformation,
Via incrementally breaking bonds.
If dislocations don't move,
deformation doesn't happen!

3 types of dislocations, Screw, Edge and
Mixed, which move differently.
3
Lattice strains are:
compressive above and
tensile below slip plane.
Disl. motion
Edge Dislocation Motion
4
Slip plane and Directions
Each crystal structure (e.g., fcc, bcc, and hcp) has different allowed slip planes,
occurring at specific angles to applied stress, and different allowed slip directions,
occurring at other angles.

Shear stress (not normal stress) is what causes planar slip to occur.
Active slip plane is typically the most CLOSE-PACKED Planes.
Active slip direction is the most CLOSE-PACKED Directions.
b
b
FCC: (111) planes in the <110> directions
Slip and Shear Stress in a Tensile Sample
Consider: Plane at an angle to the applied load F.
NORMAL Force: F
N
= F cos

Consider: Slip along direction at angle .
SHEAR Force: F
S
= F cos.

Area of Slip-plane: A
s
= A/cos (A
s
> A)

NORMAL Stress in -planes:
N
= F
N
/ A
s
= Fcos/ (A/cos)= cos
2

SHEAR Stress in -planes:
(
s
= F
s
/ A
s
= Fcos/ (A/cos)= cos cos

Shear stress is what causes the slip to occur

Y

X
A
S
Applied
Load
|
n
S

A
S

A
6
Slip of atomic plane via applied tensile stress
Resolved Shear Stress (RSS)
t
RSS
=o cos cos
Maximum Resolved Shear Stress

t
R
MAX
=o cos cos
|
\
|
.
|
MAX
one slip system is general favored initially.
Critical Resolved Shear Stress

t
R
MAX
=
o
y
2
>t
CRSS
(
CRSS
is the min. shear stress to initiate slip.
Dislocation move at
ys
when (
R
>(
CRSS
.
(
R
will vary from one crystal to another.
Typically 10
-4
to 10
-2
GPa
Max. at == 45
0
.
Slip is on planes ~45
o
from
the applied stress.
7
Ex: Deformation of single crystal
= 35
= 60
F = 6500 psi
MPa 20.7
cos cos
= o
| o = t
(
crss
= 20.7 MPa
a) Will the single crystal yield?
b) If not, what stress is needed?

t = (45 MPa)
= (45 MPa) (0.41)
t =18.5 MPa < t
crss
=

(cos35 )

(cos 60 )

20.7 MPa
So the applied stress of 6500 psi will
NOT cause the crystal to yield.
8
psi 7325
41 . 0
psi 3000
cos cos
crss
= =
|
t
= o
y
What stress is necessary (i.e., what is o
y
)?
) 41 . 0 ( cos cos psi 3000
crss y y
o = | o = = t
psi 7325 = o > o
y
So for deformation to occur the applied stress must
be greater than or equal to the yield stress
Ex: Deformation of single crystal
9
surface of polycrystalline Cu
unstressed stressed
Grains rotate and elongate
Slip in Metal Polycrystals
Requires motion of dislocations
load
Slip planes & directions (,) change from one
crystal to another.
(
R
will vary from one crystal to another.
The crystal with the largest (
R
yields first.
Less favorably oriented crystals yield later.
10
Slip Systems in FCC: {111}<110>
12 slip systems in FCC: 4 {111} planes and 3 <110> Directions
For a given direction of APPLIED Stress, there are different
angles to the SLIP PLANE , , and SLIP DIRECTIONS, .
t
RSS
=o cos cos
e.g.: A slip system could be
Planes:
111 ( )
1 11 ( )
11 1 ( )
111 ( )

111
( )
[110]
11
Strengthening Mechanisms
Increase Grain Boundaries:
barriers to slip/dislocation motion.

Solid-Solution Strengthening:
pinning (opposing stress fields) or impeding
dislocation motion (obstacles).

Work-hardening (or Cold-Working):
Increased dislocation density, more interactions
interactions (increased stress fields and
entanglements).
12
Strengthening: 1- reduce grain size
Grain boundaries are
barriers to slip.

Barrier "strength"
increases with
misorientation.

Smaller grain size:
more barriers to slip.

g
r
a
i
n

b
o
u
n
d
a
r
y
slip plane
grain A
g
r
a
i
n

B
13
Stress fields from dislocations with no applied stresses.
Like ones Repel
Opposites attract
Two halves make a whole.
No strain from missing half row.
Obstacles, e.g. GB, twins,
particles (precipitates).
Larger back stress w/ many.
Dislocation pile-ups: traffic jam
Interacting Edge Dislocations
14
Strengthening: 2 - solid solutions
Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.
Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
Smaller substitutional generates local shear at A
and B that opposes dislocation.
Host atom under
tension, T
c
T
15
solid solutions - cont.
Larger substitutional impurity generates local
shear at C and D that opposes dislocation.
Host atom in
compression, C
c
T
Note that solutes always restrict motion of dislocation,
only depends on magnitude, not sign, of size mismatch!
16
Ex: solid-solution strengthening in Cu
Tensile strength & yield strength increase w/wt% Ni.
Empirical relation:
Alloying increases
y
and TS.
o
y
~C
1/ 2
17
Can you interpret and compare these microstructures?
18
Room temperature deformation.
Forming operations change the cross sectional area:

%CW=
A
o
A
d
A
o
x100
-Forging -Rolling
-Extrusion -Drawing
Adapted from Fig.
11.7, Callister 6e.
Strengthening strategy: 3 -
Cold-Working (%CW)
19
20
Ti alloy after cold working:
Dislocations entangle with
one another during cold work
which makes dislocation motion
more difficult.
Dislocations during Cold-Working
21
Yield strength (YS) increases.
Tensile strength (TS) increases.
Ductility decreases.
Fig. 8.18
Effect of Cold-Working
Undrawn wire
1st drawn
2nd drawn
22
Yield strength (YS) increases.
Tensile strength (TS) increases.
Ductility decreases.
Effect of Cold-Working
23
What is the tensile strength &
ductility after cold working?

%CW =
tr
o
2
tr
d
2
tr
o
2
x100 = 35.6%
Cold-Working Analysis
% Cold Work
100
300
500
700
Cu
20 0 40 60
yield strength (MPa)
YS = 300MPa
300MPa
% Cold Work
tensile strength (MPa)
200
Cu
0
400
600
800
20 40 60
ductility (%EL)
% Cold Work
20
40
60
20 40 60 0
0
Cu
340MPa
TS = 340MPa
7%
%EL = 7%
24
heating after cold working (at T
anneal)
reduces TS and
increases ductility i.e. effects of cold work are reversed!
Three Annealing stages
Effect of Heating after %CW

t
e
n
s
i
l
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
M
P
a
)

d
u
c
t
i
l
i
t
y

(
%
E
L
)

tensile strength
ductility
600
300
400
500
60
50
40
30
20
annealing temperature (C)
200 100 300 400 500 600 700
25
At T well below melting has microstructural and property
changes that include
change in grain shape
strain hardening cold-working
increase in dislocation density
Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth
Properties and microstructure can revert back towards
precold-worked state by heat treatment that result from
recovery and recrystallization
followed by grain growth.
26
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
Scenario 1
diffusion (T dependent) plus dislocations annihilating
(density dependent).
Recovery
27
New crystals are formed that:
(1) have a small dislocation density
(2) are small
and (3) consume cold-worked crystals.
Recrystallization
33% cold
worked
brass
New crystals
nucleate after
3 sec. at 580 C.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
28
All cold-worked crystals are consumed.
Further Recrystallization
After 4
seconds
After 8
seconds
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
29
At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
Grain boundary area (thus energy) reduced.
Grain Growth
33%CW Brass
Fig. 8.21c,d,e
(courtesy of J.E.
Burke, General
Electric Co.)
After 15 min,
580C
After 8 s,
580C
After 4 s,
580C
0.6 mm
Small grains are
Recrystallized grains
Fully Recrystallized
30
Grain Growth and Properties
Linear at low T

faster diffusion at
high T make time
greater than linear

Recrytallization T
R
0.3
T
m
< T
rx
< 0.6 T
m

31
Summary
Strength is increased by making dislocation motion difficult from
various mechanisms and increasing their density
Particular ways to increase strength are to:
--decrease grain size
--solid-solution strengthening
--precipitate strengthening
--cold working
Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation density
and increase grain size.

Strengthening Mechanisms

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Strengthening Mechanisms

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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D.

Johnson 2004, 2006-2010

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