Phase shift mask technology

• Light (an electromagnetic wave) has both

amplitude and phase
• A conventional photomask consists of a quartz
plate with a patterned opaque layer
• Constructive interference between openings
enhance both the electric field and intensity,
reducing both contrast and resolution
• By shifting the phase in adjacent openings by
180°, destructive interference can minimize
unwanted intensity between openings
 Phase-shifted mask technology
conventional mask phase shift mask

mask

phase
shifter
electric
field at
mask

electric
field at
wafer

intensity
at wafer
 Standing wave effects

• The projection of a perfect

image onto a resist
surface will not
necessarily result in the
replication of that image!
• With monochromatic light,
standing waves create a
periodic intensity
distribution
anding waves causeperpendicular
“steps” to occur at the edge of an expo
to the plane
ttern; minimized by of the resist.
baking the photoresist so that it will “flo
using an antireflection coating at the wafer surface
 Reflections off topographic features

terference between the imaging beam and its reflection off o

rface of the wafer and topographic features is a major cause
newidth variations
ariations can be minimized by planarizing the wafer either by
ching or by chemical-mechanical polishing
ntireflective polymers underneath the resist also help
oth planarization and a.r. coatings help, but both increase th
omplexity of the process.
 A 1983 prediction...

“After consideration of all factors which limit

resolution such as exposure hardware, resist
systems, registration, alignment, and linewidth
control, there is a general consensus that the
useful resolution limit of photolithography may
lie somewhere between 0.4 and 0.8 µm and
depends on such factors as the implemen-tation
of short wavelength UV and the ability to
accurately place images from a projection tool
onto a silicon wafer.”

L.E. Thomas and M.J. Bowden, in Introduction to

 Photoresists (1)

• general properties of
polymers
• photoresist types
• photoresist characterization
(dissolution behavior,
sensitivity, contrast,
resolution, etching
resistance)
• resist materials
– general characteristics
– negative resists
– positive resists
• photoresist processing
 Generic properties of polymers
• Polymers are long chain, usually organic (C,
O, H) molecules with high molecular weights
(1000 → >1,000,000)
• Thermoplastic polymers -- chains are free to
move past each other at high temperatures,
and become entangled at low temperatures
linear chains (LDPE) branched chains
(HDPE)
• Thermoset polymers -- chains are
crosslinked together to form a three-
dimensional network (example: epoxy resins)
• The properties of a polymer are determined
by its chemical constituents, its molecular
weight (and M.W. distribution) and the degree
 Important polymers in photoresists

OH OH

CH2 CH2 CH2

OH
H CH3
CH3
C O
CH2
CH3 H
OH

CH2
m-cresol formaldehyde novolac
CH3
polymer
(novolac = “new lacquer
Important polymers in photoresists

H H CH3 H H H CH3 H
C C C C C C C C

H H H H
cis-isoprene poly (cis-isoprene)

H CH3 H CH3
C C C C
H C O H C O
O O
CH3 CH3

methyl methacrylate
poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)
 Mechanical properties of polymers
• The mechanical properties of polymers (which
are important to photoresist processing)
strongly depend on the long chain nature of
these materials and both intra- and inter-chain
reactions
• The glass transition temperature Tg is an
important parameter
– T < Tg -- only short-range motions of the
polymer chain are possible → elastic
behavior
– T > Tg -- long-range motions of the polymer
chain are possible → viscous behavior
• Both the chemical structure (crosslinking
 Positive versus negative resists

mask

photoresist

substrate

development

positive-tone resist negative-tone resist

 Positive versus negative photoresists

• Positive photoresist -- exposure to light

increases the solubility of the polymer
(opening in mask → opening in resist)

• Negative photoresist -- exposure to light

decreases the solubility of the polymer
(opening in mask → closed area in resist)

• Both positive and negative resists are used,

depending on device design, process flow, and
the demands of the lithographic process
(examples and reasons will be given…)
 Photoresist characterization

• There are a few common characteristics of all

photoresists that are used to gauge their
performance
⇒dissolution behavior
⇒sensitivity
⇒contrast
⇒resolution
⇒etching resistance
• The choice of a particular photolithography
process (optical system + photoresist system)
will depend on compromises between these
(and other!) factors
 Photoresist dissolution behavior

• Photoresist dissolution must be determined for

each combination of exposure system,
photoresist, and development system
• Dissolution curves give an operational definition
 Normalized thickness after development
Normalized thickness after development
Photoresist sensitivity -- “contrast curves”
D
D100
o

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

D
D100
o

log Dose log Dose

positive resist negative resist

• Do = incipient dose: minimum dose required for a
given process to emerge (note -- varies with process
and development conditions)
• D100 = completion dose: dose at which the resist is
completely dissolved positive resists) or at which the
resist is completely inert (negative resist)
Photoresist sensitivity -- “contrast curves”

• The contrast is defined as

1
γ =
D100
log10
D0

• Contrast is the ability of a photoresist to

distinguish between light and dark portions of
the mask
• In general, the higher the contrast, the
sharper are the edge profiles of developed
lines (highly desirable!)
• Contrast can be varied by adjustment of the
resist processing parameters
 Photoresist resolution

• Resolution is the ability of a resist to resolve

fine lines in the final printed pattern
• Resolution depends strongly on the
chemistry of the resist and the developer
system
• Other factors can affect resolution
–Exposure hardware (Chapter 7)
–Resist deformation from thermal flow
during processing
• If a resist is heated above its glass transition
during processing, thermal flow may distort
the exposed pattern
–plasma etching
 Photoresist etching resistance

• After the photoresist is exposed, it is

exposed to corrosive or physically-abusive
environments in subsequent processing
– Wet etches → strong acids or bases
– Dry etches → oxygen plasma “ashes”
organic materials; chlorinated (for metals)
and fluorinated (for silicon) plasmas are
very corrosive to photoresists
• Etching resistance is the ability of a resist
to withstand the conditions necessary to
transfer the pattern
– Etching resistance is a strong function of
resist chemistry
 Resist materials -- overview
• A polymer-based photoresist must
meet rigorous requirements:
⇒ high sensitivity
⇒ high contrast
⇒ high Tg
⇒ good etch resistance
not your basic
⇒ good resolution Tupperware!
⇒ easy processing
⇒ long shelf life
⇒ minimal solvent use
⇒ reasonable cost
 Resist materials -- negative resists
• Negative resists were the first to be used in
semiconductor device fabrication
• Polymer matrix + organic sensitizer
– matrix: poly(cis-isoprene) -- a synthetic
rubber
– sensitizer:O bis(aryl)azide

2,6-bis(4-azidobenzylidene
cyclohexanone
N3 N3

chanism -- the sensitizer loses nitrogen under hν and genera

ghly reactive nitrene; this reacts with the polymer to crosslin
lowers its solubility by organic solvents (like vulcanization)
 Problems with negative resists
• Resolution in negative resists is limited by
swelling in the exposed crosslinked areas
caused
exposed by solvent uptake:
PRunexposed PR exposed PR swollen by solvent

during development solvent after development

• Line width of negative resists limited to ~3 µm

• Organic solvents a problem (environment-
safety-health)
• Advantages: greater process latitude, much
lower cost
•
 Resist materials -- positive resists
• Positive resists have gained popularity
because of their superior resolution, better
etching resistance, and thermal stability
• Polymer matrix + organic sensitizer
– matrix: novolac resin (cresol/formaldehyde
O
polymer)
N2
– sensitizer:
the specific diazoquinone
organic group R plays (DQ)
only a secondary role in the resist
exposure process
SO2R
chanism -- upon photolysis, the DQ sensitizer loses nitrogen
onverted into a carboxylic acid; the irradiated areas of the re
be dissolved in a strong base (KOH, NaOH)
 Specific reaction mechanism of DQ

(1) O O (2)
N2 •
•

hν , -N2
SO2R DQ SO2R carbene

O Wolff O
(4) rearrangement (3)
C OH C

H2 O
SOindenecarboxylic
2R SO2R ketene
acid (ICA)
 Photoresist processing
Wafer preparation
This will be
Adhesion promoter These steps are
repeated 15 to
being
30 times during
Resist application performed on
the processing
highly value-
of a given wafer
Softbake added wafers --
-- all
any error will
lithography
Exposure negate (trash)
steps must be
all of the prior
aligned to each
Post-exposure bake work
other

Develop

Hardbake

Post-development treatments