Skeletal System

5 ARTS

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 The Skeletal System serves many

important functions; it provides the shape and form for our bodies in addition to supporting, protecting, allowing bodily movement, producing blood for the body, and storing minerals.

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Functions
Its 206 bones form a rigid framework
to which the softer tissues and organs of the body are attached.

Vital organs are protected by the

skeletal system.

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 The brain is protected by the surrounding

skull as the heart and lungs are encased by the sternum and rib cage. interaction of the muscular and skeletal systems. together as the musculo-skeletal system.
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Bodily movement is carried out by the

For this reason, they are often grouped

 Muscles are connected to bones by tendons.

Bones are connected to each other by ligaments.

Where bones meet one another is typically called

a joint.

Muscles which cause movement of a joint are

connected to two different bones and contract to pull them together.

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 An example would be the contraction of This produces a bend at the elbow.

The contraction of the triceps and
relaxation of the biceps produces the effect of straightening the arm.
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the biceps and a relaxation of the triceps.

 Blood cells are produced by the

marrow located in some bones.

An average of 2.6 million red blood

cells are produced each second by the bone marrow to replace those worn out and destroyed by the liver.
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 Bones serve as a storage area for

minerals such as calcium and phosphorus.

When an excess is present in the

blood, buildup will occur within the bones.

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 When the supply of these minerals

within the blood is low, it will be withdrawn from the bones to replenish the supply.

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Divisions of the Skeleton

The human skeleton is divided into two
distinct parts:
The axial skeleton consists of bones that form the axis of the body and support and protect the organs of the head, neck, and trunk. The Skull The Sternum The Ribs The Vertebral Column

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Connective Tissues
The parts of the body are bound together, and
supported, by connective tissue.

Blood, which has been discussed in circulation, is

a connective tissue.

Some of the other types of connective tissue will

be discussed in this presentation.
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 They are fibrous connective tissues;

cartilage; and bone.

Connective tissues contain living cells

which secrete chemical substances to be deposited between the cells in order to strengthen the tissue.

These secretions form an intercellular

matrix.
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Fibrous connective tissues

The cells secrete collagen, a protein
which forms strong fibres.

Examples of this are the ligaments which

hold joints in position and the tendons which attach muscles to bones.

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Cartilage
This is an elastic, smooth, shiny form of
connective tissue.

Cartilage cells secrete a hard form of

collagen and the matrix pushes apart the living cells.

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Fig.1:Cross section of cartilage in trachea

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 The skeleton is first laid down in the foetus as

cartilage which later develops into bone.

Other types of cartilage remain as such

throughout adult life.

Fig. 1 shows cartilage tissue. Cartilage is elastic,

but does not stretch or bend easily.
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Bone
Cartilage which develops into bone has a primary centre
at which bone cells are formed. calcium phosphate. formation).

The bone cells deposit the bone matrix, made mainly of This centre is a centre of ossification (i.e. bone

As ossification spreads, the cartilage is absorbed and the

cartilage cells die.

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 Ossification spreads along the bone, and a

hard, rigid matrix is formed with bone cells inside it.

The development of ossification in young

bones is shown in Fig. 2.

The bone cells in bones are scattered in

concentric circles round canals (Haversian canals) which carry fine blood vessels and nerves.
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Fig. 2: Cross section of developing bone

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 Fig. 3 shows the living cells embedded in

the hard matrix.

Fig. 4 shows the manner in which the cells

are gradually forced away from the canals, although they still obtain nourishment from the blood supply.

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Fig. 3: Bone Cells

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Fig. 4: Blood Vessel

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 Each cell has many fine, fibrous processes

which form before the matrix is deposited; these are shown as lines radiating.

In human beings, the long bones grow at

each end, during childhood and adolescence (growth stops at an age of 20 approximately).
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 The bone becomes large, and at the same

time it thickens on the outside.

The" inside of the bone contains spongy

bone, in which cavities are left as cartilage dies away; the outside consists of hard bone with few such cavities.
stop
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 The interior of the bone is hollow and the

size of the interior' increases as the bone thickens.

Fig. 5 shows a diagram of a long bone.

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Fig. 5: Diagram of Long Bone

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 The ends of the bone consist of spongy

bone filled with red marrow in the bone cavities.

Erythrocytes and granulocyte leucocytes

are manufactured in this marrow.

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 The hollow centre of the bone contains

yellow bone marrow which mainly consists of fat cells.

Broken bones are knitted together by the

outside layer of bone secreting fresh bone matrix.

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Fatty tissue
This is also a form of connective tissue,
although it is not used for support.

Enlarged cells are filled with deposits of oil

in the cell vacuoles; the oil gradually pushes aside the cytoplasm until the cell is practically filled with fat.
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The Skeleton
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Basic Plan
An axial skeleton, consisting of the
backbone and skull, forms the foundation of the human skeleton.

Attached to it is a rib cage.

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 The appendicular skeleton consists of

the four limbs attached to two bony girdles.

Fig. 6 shows the skeleton of a man.

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Fig. 6: Human Skeleton

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The backbone
The backbone is the central axis of the
body; it consists of 33 separate bones firmly connected to each other, yet allowing a limited amount of movement on each other (resulting in the flexibility of the backbone).

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 It extends the length of the trunk, and the

separate bones are bound together by ligaments.

The backbone has to support the weight

of the trunk, and is curved in an S-shape for this purpose. (See Fig. 7).
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 Each bone is called a vertebra, and although

the vertebrae all have the same basic plan, the actual shape of any one bone varies with its position in the backbone.

The five regions of the backbone, and the

number of vertebrae in each, are shown in Fig. 7.

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 The cervical region is in the neck; the

thoracic region is behind the chest, and the ribs are attached to these vertebrae; the lumbar region is behind the abdomen, and these vertebrae protect the abdomen.

The sacral region consists of five vertebrae

fused together, and the pelvic girdle is attached to this portion of the backbone.
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 The coccyx consists of four small, fused

vertebrae, and it is the remnant of a tail.

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Fig.7: Backbone

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The basic plan of a vertebra

The ventral (front) part of the bone is a thick,
protective mass of bone, the centrum.

Figs. 8 and 10 show the basic structure of a

vertebra.

The centrum forms the main support for the

backbone; attached to it dorsally is the neural arch, a ring of bone through which passes the spinal cord.
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 The neural arches of all the vertebrae form a

bony tube for the protection of the spinal cord.

Transverse processes project on either side of

the neural arch.

Between the transverse process and the

centrum is a hole, a foramen, on each side of the vertebra.

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 The foramen provide exits for the spinal

nerves.

The neural spine is a long bony process

on the dorsal (back) aspect of the neural arch.

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transverse

neural spine

Fig. 8: A Vertebra (from above)

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 Four facets provide surfaces for

articulation, that is, surfaces on which the vertebrae are capable of restricted movement, allowing the backbone to bend; the shape of the surfaces controls and restricts the movement of one bone on another.

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 Two of the facets are on the top of, and

two are on the bottom of, each vertebra, situated at the point where the transverse processes join the neural arch.

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 Muscles and ligaments are attached to the

transverse processes and the neural spine, binding the vertebrae together and controlling the movement of the backbone.

Discs of cartilage between the centra of

the vertebrae absorb shock.
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Fig. 9: A Vertebra (from side)

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Fig. 10: A Vertebra (from above)

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Cervical vertebrae
These vertebrae are recognisable by the
presence of vertebrarterial canals for the vertebral arteries on either side of the centrum.

The neural spine is forked at the end.

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 The first two vertebrae have a special

structure, due to their function; the first is the atlas and the second is the axis.

Fig. 11 shows a diagram of a cervical

vertebra.

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Fig. 11: Cervical Vertebrae

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The Mas
This bone is shown in Fig. 11.
It has no centrum. Its superior facets are
large and articulate with the skull, allowing a rocking movement.

There are no transverse processes and no

neural spine.
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The Axis
The centrum of the axis has a strong tooth-like
process, the odontoid peg, which fits into a hole in the atlas.

This allows a turning movement in which the

atlas moves with the skull.

The atlas and axis together allow movement of

the skull in all directions. (See Fig. 11).
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The thoracic vertebrae

These possess very long neural spines
which are bound together by ligaments.

There are two long transverse processes

with facets on top fitting into facets on the bottom of the vertebra above.

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 Additional facets on either side of the centrum,

and at the ends of the transverse processes, are provided for articulation with the ribs; each thoracic vertebra thus has eight facets.

Muscles are attached to the neural spine and the

transverse processes.

Notice the overlap of the neural spines and the

transverse processes in this region of the backbone. (See Fig. 12).

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Fig.12: Thoracic Vertebrae

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Lumbar vertebrae
These are very massive bones as they provide
the only support for the trunk in the abdominal region.

They possess large broad transverse processes

and a short broad neural spine.

The superior and inferior facets are both large.

(See Fig. 13).

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Fig.13: Lumbar Vertebrae

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Sacral vertebrae
These are fused together, forming the
sacrum, which is the base for the pelvis.

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Skull
The skull consists of the cranium and the
face bones.

The cranium is formed from many bones

joined together by interlocking, serrated edges, which become fused in adulthood.

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 The cranium encloses the brain and

protects it.

Entrances to the cranium are provided by

the eye sockets, the nasal passages, and the foramen magnum, which is the entrance for the spinal cord to the brain.

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 Two round swellings at the base of the

skull on either side of the foramen magnum rest on the facets of the atlas.

The upper jaw bone is fused to the base

of the cranium; the lower jaw bone is hinged to the temporal bone of the cranium.

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 The nose has a bony framework in the

upper part and a framework of cartilage in the lower part.

The cheek bone is a bony process of the

upper jaw bone. (See Figs. 14 and 15).

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Fig. 14: Human Jaw

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Fig. 15: Skull

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The rib cage

These are twelve pairs of ribs in the
skeleton, and all articulate with the backbone.

The upper seven are joined directly to the

sternum (or breast bone) by cartilage at the end of the rib.

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 The next three are attached to the rib

above by cartilage, while the bottom two ribs are not connected to the sternum or to the rib above; these are called floating ribs.

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 Fig. 16 is a diagram of the rib cage.

Fig. 17 shows the structure of a rib; it is a
curved, flat bone with a head, and a tubercle, a projecting process near the head on the outside of the rib.

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Fig. 16: Rib Cage

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Fig. 17: A Rib

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 There is a facet on the head and one on

the tubercle.

The facet on the head articulates with

facets on the centra of two vertebrae.

The tubercle articulates on the facet of a

transverse process.
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 The rib cage gives rigidity to the pectoral

girdle and protects the vital organs in the thoracic cavity.

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The appendicular skeleton

This consists of two arms articulating with
the pectoral girdle and two legs articulating with the pelvic girdle.

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The pectoral girdle

This girdle contains two bones, the scapulae,
(single scapula), or shoulder blades, and two others, the clavicles, or collar bones.

The scapula is a flat triangular-shaped bone

with a spine projecting from it. (See Fig. 18).

It is embedded in muscle and is dorsal to the rib

cage.

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 At the head of the bone is a socket for the

humerus.

A facet on the spine of the scapula

provides an articulatory surface for the clavicle.

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 The clavicle is a long flat, gently curved bone.

It articulates with the scapula at one end, and with the sternum, or breast bone, at the other end. (See Fig. 19).

There is no complete bony girdle structure; the

girdle is formed by the clavicle, the scapula, and the strong muscles attached to the backbone.

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 Fig. 20 shows the pectoral girdle in

relation to the ribs.

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Fig. 18: Scapula

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Fig. 19: Clavicle

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 The bone in the upper arm is the

humerus, which lies between the shoulder joint and the elbow joint.

The radius and the ulna are situated in

the forearm; the ulna articulates with the humerus to form the elbow joint.
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 The radius articulates with both the humerus

and the ulna and it is capable of rotation.

The radius rotates from above the ulna to below

it when the hand is turned over.

The hand has two rows of small carpal bones in

the wrist.

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 The metacarpal bones form the palm of

the hand.

The phalanges form the digits, with three

phalanges in each finger, and two in the thumb. (See Fig. 21).

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Fig. 20: Pectoral Girdle

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Fig. 21: Bones of Arm

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The pelvic girdle

The girdle consists of a bowl-shaped, solid
mass of bone formed from three fused bones.

The dorsal part is firmly fixed to the

sacrum, and the thinner, ventral portion is fused in the middle, as shown in Fig. 22.
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 A socket in the pelvis takes the ball-

shaped head of the femur bone of the leg to form the hip joint.

Fig. 23 shows the socket, and the femur;

the two bones on the left in the figure are the ventral part of the girdle, and they are fused with two similar bones on the other side of the body.

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 The pelvic girdle is a strong, bony

structure, suitable for taking the weight of the trunk and transmitting it to the legs.

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Fig. 22: Pelvic Girdle

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Fig. 23: Hip Joint

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Fig. 24: Bones of Leg

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Fig. 25: Bones of Foot

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Functions of the skeleton

The skeleton gives support and shape to
the body.

It allows movement of the body through

articulation of bones at joints by the action of muscles on bones.

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 It gives a protective covering, the best

protection given by the body, to the most vital organs.

Fig. 6 shows the skeleton, and the

particular arrangement of bones, discussed above, can be seen in relation to the whole skeleton.
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 Another function of the skeleton is that it

provides a store of calcium from which calcium ions may be moved into the blood as required.

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Joints

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Structure of a joint
Two, or more, bones, are connected
together by ligaments, which form a fibrous capsule surrounding the joint.

Smooth, articular cartilage on the ends of

the bones facilitates the movement of one bone relative to the other, and also absorbs shock.
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 The space between the two pads of cartilage is

filled with synovial fluid, a liquid which lubricates and cushions the joint.

The fluid is contained in a. delicate membrane,

the synovial membrane, which itself is contained in the fibrous capsule surrounding the joint.

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 A diagram of a cross-section through a

typical joint is shown in Fig. 26, and illustrates the parts of the joint described above.

Damage to the joint causes excess

synovial fluid to be formed, and the fibrous capsule bulges, causing the joint to swell. Rudolph 2007 HSB

 For example, water on the knee, and

"tennis elbow", are complaints of this type.

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Fig. 26: Structure of a Joint

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Types of joints
A joint is described according to the
degree of movement it permits.

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 The main types are: ball and socket

joints, which allow free movement in all directions; hinge joints, which allow movement in one plane only; gliding joints, in which two bone surfaces move over each other, e.g. the carpals and the tarsals; fixed joints, e.g. the sutures, which join the bones of the cranium.

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Ball and socket joints

An example of this type is the hip joint, shown in
Fig. 23, and in diagram form in Fig. 27.

In the hip joint, the head of the femur is ballshaped and fits into a socket in the pelvis.

The ball in the socket allows free rotation in all

directions.

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 Ligaments bind the femur to the pelvis,

and the manner in which they are attached to the bone is shown in Fig. 28.

These ligaments form the fibrous capsule

enclosing the joint; the remaining structures of synovial fluid and the synovial membrane are as described above under the structure of a joint.

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 Another example of a ball and socket joint

is the shoulder joint; a ball-shaped head in the humerus fits into a socket in the scapula.

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Fig. 27 Ball and Socket Joint

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Fig. 28: Hip Joint

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Hinge joints
In this type of joint, the rounded end of
one bone fits into the hollow of a second bone; the two structures are flat in one plane, allowing movement in one direction only.

A diagram of a section through a hinge

joint is given in Fig. 29.
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 The knee joint (see Fig. 30) is an example of a hinge

joint; the round-shaped lower end of the femur articulates on the flattened surface of the tibia.

Ligaments bind the bones together, forming a fibrous

capsule.

The patella protects the blood vessels and nerves

passing the joint, as the flesh is thin at this point.

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Fig. 29: Hinge Joint

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Fig. 30 Knee Joint

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Fig. 31: Elbow Joint

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 The elbow joint is another example of a hinge

joint; in it, the rounded lower end of the humerus fits into a hollow of the ulna.

The ligaments binding the humerus to the ulna

are shown in Fig. 31.

The radius is also bound to the ulna and

humerus by ligaments, which firmly anchor the head of the radius to the ulna and to the humerus.

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 These ligaments enclose two fibrous

capsules for the two articulatory surfaces.

The olecranon process, a projection on

the ulna, prevents movement backwards past the straightened position.

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The function of joints

Most joints permit bones to be moved
relative to each other, and thus allow movement and locomotion of the body.

The bone surfaces in a joint are prevented

from wearing by the synovial fluid and the cartilage at the end of the bones.
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 The ligaments prevent dislocation of the

joint, that is, the head of one bone being removed from the socket of another.

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Muscles
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Types of muscles
Voluntary muscles are attached to bones to
provide movement of joints.

They are therefore sometimes called skeletal

muscles.

Their appearance under the microscope is that

of striped, or striated, tissue, hence voluntary muscle is called striped muscle.
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 Involuntary muscles mostly surround the

viscera; their microscopic appearance is that of smooth, or un-striated, tissue.

Involuntary muscle is called smooth

muscle, or plain muscle.

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 Heart muscle is a special type of tissue

and is described below; it is also called cardiac muscle.

Figs. 32, 33, and 34 are photomicrographs

of the three types of muscle.

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Fig. 32: Striped (striated) muscle (part of cell)

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Fig. 33: Smooth (unstriated) muscle

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Fig. 34: Heart Muscle

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Voluntary muscle (striated or striped muscle)

The bulk of the body of vertebrates,
including man, is muscle.

The lean meat from domestic, and other,

animals used for food is voluntary muscle.

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 Under a microscope, the muscle is seen

to be composed of long fibres, which are cylindrical in cross-section and covered with a thin membrane.

Each fibre contains several nuclei, as,

during growth, the nucleus of a muscle cell undergoes division, without division of the cytoplasm.

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 Each fibre consists of cytoplasm and long

fibrils; the fibrils are striated, i.e. they
have alternate bands of light and dark coloured protein, and it is their structure which gives the muscle its striped appearance.

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 The structure of a fibre is shown

diagrammatically in Fig. 35. A crosssection of a voluntary muscle is shown in Fig. 36.

Bundles of fibres are enclosed in a

membranous sheath; a muscle is composed of many such bundles.

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 A network of capillaries and nerves passes

between the fibres, with nerve endings, effectors, attached to the fibres.

A tough, shining, white sheath of

connective tissue encloses the muscle, and continues from the end of the muscle to form a tendon.

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Fig. 35 Diagram showing the

structure of Skeletal Muscle

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Fig. 36: Cross Section of Striped Muscle

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The function of voluntary muscles

Each muscle fibre has several motor
neuron effectors attached to its sheath.

An impulse, conducted by the motor

nerve, causes contraction of the muscle fibre in a very short period of time (about 0-01 seconds).
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 On contraction of the fibres, the muscle

fibre becomes shorter and thicker, but its total volume remains the same.

Each muscle fibre behaves according to

the "all-or-none" principle; if the nervous impulse is strong enough to cause contraction, then it causes complete contraction of the fibre.

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 The muscular effort is determined by the

number of fibres contracted by nervous impulses.

A single impulse contracts a muscle fibre

for about 0.04 seconds, after that it relaxes again.

For a sustained contraction, a series of

nervous impulses is sent, so that the individual contractions merge into one sustained contraction.
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 Sufficient impulses are conducted by

motor neurons to contract a sufficient number of fibres to produce the necessary muscular effort.

Most voluntary muscles are controlled by

the motor centres of the brain, and so voluntary muscular action is under the control of the will.

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 Voluntary muscles contain protein,

glycogen and mineral salts; the glycogen is stored ready to provide energy for muscular action.

Tissue respiration releases heat and

energy for muscular action and forms waste products.

Muscles become fatigued with prolonged

use, and this is explained under muscular fatigue.
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stopped

Involuntary muscle (smooth muscle or plain muscle)

This type of muscle tissue contains
spindle-shaped cells, each cell containing one nucleus in the centre of the cell. (See Fig. 17.37).

The cells are packed-tightly together,

forming sheets of muscle tissue.
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 A sheet of involuntary muscle usually

consists of two layers, with the axes of the muscle cells in each layer at right angles to each other.

The sheets of muscle mainly envelop

visceral organs, e.g. the intestine; the bladder.

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 Motor neurons of the autonomic system

have effector endings on the sheet of muscle; impulses transmitted by these nerves control the waves of contraction in the sheet of muscle.

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Fig. 37 Smooth Muscle

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Functions of involuntary muscles

A very slow con traction, time of about 15
seconds is characteristic of this type of muscle.

Each part of the muscle contracts and

relaxes in this time, and the wave of contraction and relaxation passes along the sheet of muscle.
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 No fatigue is experienced due to the slow

rate of contraction, and the supply of materials from the blood is adequate to meet the needs of tissue respiration in the muscle.

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Heart muscle (cardiac muscle)

Heart muscle consists of a network of stripped
fibres which branch, and join other fibres.

There is no membrane surrounding the fibre as

in voluntary muscles.

The fibres contain separate cells with a nucleus

in each.

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 This type of muscle is like striped muscle

(as the fibres contain striated fibrils), and like smooth muscle (as the cells are uninucleate). (See Fig. 38).

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Fig. 38: Heart Muscle

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Functions of heart muscle

The action of heart muscle differs from both voluntary
and involuntary muscles in being both automatic and rhythmic.

The contraction time is faster than that of involuntary

muscle but slower than that of voluntary muscle.

It is not under the control of the motor centres of the

brain, but it is controlled by the autonomic nervous system.

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 It acts independently of neuron

connections, and beats (contracts) rhythmically and continually.

It is supplied with autonomic nerve

endings which influence the rate of beating.

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General functions of muscles

The contractions of muscles cause the
movement of joints and of viscera.

Muscles also give rigidity to the skeleton

by preventing the movement of bones.

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 Tissue respiration releases heat to warm

the body and energy to produce work by muscular action.

Certain muscles provide protection for

parts of the body, e.g. the abdominal muscles protect the viscera.
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Action of voluntary muscles

All voluntary muscles work in pairs in opposition
to each other.

This is necessary because a muscle can only

contract or relax, so that it can only pull and cannot push. angle of a joint to decrease (flexors) or to increase [extensors).
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The muscles that move a joint either cause the

 For example, in the elbow joint (see Fig.

39), the biceps muscle is a flexor; it is situated in front of the humerus and is attached by two tendons to its origin on the scapula.

Its insertion is on the radius, where it is

attached by one tendon.
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 Contraction of the biceps raises the

forearm, decreasing the angle of the joint.

The triceps muscle is situated behind the

humerus; it is attached by three tendons to its origins, one to the scapula and two to the humerus.

Its insertion is on the ulna, where it is

attached by one tendon.
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Fig. 39: Elbow Joint with Biceps and Triceps Muscles

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 The triceps is an extensor, and increases

the angle of the joint.

The triceps muscle steadies the arm,

giving it rigidity when the biceps muscle is used to lift a load.

The brain coordinates the muscular

movement by sending nervous impulses which are sufficient to cause sufficient muscular action to lift the load.
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 Fig. 40 shows diagrammatically the pair of

muscles in opposition to each other and the action of the biceps muscle in lifting a load.

The brain, from information received from

the eye, and from previous learned experience, estimates the weight of the load, and causes muscular action which supplies just sufficient effort to move the estimated weight.
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 All senses are coordinated by the brain in

controlling movement.

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Fig. 40: Movement of Elbow

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Posture
Posture is the manner in which the body is held In good posture, the backbone is upright, with
at rest by the muscles attached to the skeleton.

its normal curvatures, i.e. the cervical region is convex forwards, the thoracic region is concave forwards, the lumbar region is convex forwards, and the sacral region is concave forwards.

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 The weight of the body is balanced on the

feet through the pelvis.

In bad posture, the point of balance is

upset, causing a strain on the muscles to compensate for the lack of proper balance; this produces uneven development of the muscles and a misshapen body.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

 If the backbone is curved too much, it

cramps the thoracic cavity 'and hinders proper breathing; is bad for all activities since insufficient oxygen is made available.

The abdominal cavity can also be

cramped, and this hinders peristalsis.

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 Good posture is a matter of habit.

Once the habit is lost, it is difficult to
regain.

It is important that children learn good

posture for standing; for writing, and for reading.

Good and bad postures are shown in Fig.

40.
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Fig. 40: Good and Bad Posture

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QUESTIONS
1. What are the structures and properties of the
different types of connective tissue?

2. How do bones grow? Illustrate your answer

with particular reference to the healing of a broken long bone.

3. Make a labelled diagram of the basic plan of a vertebra.

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4. Describe the mode of articulation of the skull on the backbone.

5. Compare the joints of the leg with those of the arm. 6. Using the elbow as an example of a joint, explain how muscles cause movement of the joint.

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7. Describe the structure of a voluntary muscle.

What is the source of energy for the movement of the muscle?

8. Describe, with a suitable example, the structure

and function of involuntary, or smooth muscle.

9. Write a brief account of good posture and its

importance. 10. A wound is made in an arm of a man. Describe all the defence mechanisms of the body that are brought into action from the moment of wounding until the wound has finally healed.
Rudolph 2007 HSB