Elasticity and Seismic Waves

Stress and Strain

Stress is defined as force per unit area. Strain is defined as the amount of deformation an object experiences compared to its original size and shape. When a force is applied to a material, it deforms: stress induces strain The SI unit for stress is the Pascal (symbol Pa), which is equivalent to one Newton (force) per square meter (unit area), that is N/m2. In Imperial units, stress is measured in pound-force per square inch, which is abbreviated as psi. Strains are dimensionless and are usually expressed as a decimal fraction or a percentage. For some materials, displacement is reversible = elastic materials

 Compression. Stress that acts to shorten an object. Tension. Stress that acts to lengthen an object. Normal Stress. Stress that acts perpendicular to a surface. Can be either compressional or tensional. Shear Stress that acts parallel to a surface. It can cause one object to slide over another. It also tends to deform originally rectangular objects into parallelograms. The most general definition is that shear acts to change the angles in an object. Hydrostatic Stress (usually compressional) that is uniform in all directions. Stress in the earth is nearly hydrostatic. The term for uniform stress in the earth is lithostatic. Directed Stress. Stress that varies with direction. Stress under a stone slab is directed; there is a force in one direction but no counteracting forces perpendicular to it.

 Longitudinal or Linear Strain. Strain that changes the length of a line without changing its direction. Can be either compressional or tensional. Compression strain. Longitudinal strain that shortens an object. Tension. Longitudinal strain that lengthens an object. Shear Strain that changes the angles of an object. Shear causes lines to rotate. Homogeneous Strain. Uniform strain. Straight lines in the original object remain straight. Parallel lines remain parallel. Circles deform to ellipses. Note that this definition rules out folding, since an originally straight layer has to remain straight. Inhomogeneous Strain. How real geology behaves. Deformation varies from place to place. Lines may bend and do not necessarily remain parallel.

Stress-strain relation
Strain is proportional to stress = Hookes law Stress-strain relation:
Elastic domain:
Stress-strain relation is linear Hookes law applies

Beyond elastic domain:

Initial shape not recovered when stress is removed Plastic deformation Eventually stress > strength of material => failure

Failure can occur within the elastic domain = brittle behavior

Strain as a function of time under stress:

Elastic = no permanent strain Plastic = permanent strain

Elastic Modulus
An elastic modulus, or modulus of elasticity, is the mathematical description of an object or substance's tendency to be deformed elastically (i.e., non-permanently) when a force is applied to it.

where lambda () is the elastic modulus. If stress is measured in Pascal, since strain is a dimensionless quantity, then the units of are Pascal as well.

 Young's modulus (E) describes tensile elasticity, or the tendency of an object to deform along an axis when opposing forces are applied along that axis; it is defined as the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain. It is often referred to simply as the elastic modulus. The shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (G or ) describes an object's tendency to shear (the deformation of shape at constant volume) when acted upon by opposing forces; it is defined as shear stress over shear strain. The bulk modulus (K) describes volumetric elasticity, or the tendency of an object to deform in all directions when uniformly loaded in all directions; it is defined as volumetric stress over volumetric strain.

 Poissons ratio When an isotropic elastic object is subject to elongation or compressive stress z a strain z results in the direction of the stress. At the same time a strain arises in the transverse directions, x , y. If z is an elongation, then x = y are compressive. The ratio = x/z = y/z is called Poissons ratio.