ESTABLISHING YOUR AUTHORITY

AKA Research Paper Writing Crash Course

THEY SAY

Using your collected research

HOW TO BEGIN
You may find it helpful to begin your paper by explaining, briefly, what others say about your topic. Remember our reading of the Stuart Greene piece, Argument as Conversation through writing a research paper about a topic, you are entering a conversation and therefore it makes sense to start with what others are saying in that conversation. You should summarize what others say ASAP to give your readers a context for what is to follow remember the CARS reading model we learned last week. Part of establishing your research territory comes from following the paths of previous research.

HOW TO BEGIN
You DONT want to explain every single thing youve found while researching at the beginning of your text summarize briefly to start, and elaborate within the body of your text when it is appropriate
WAIT! When is it appropriate to expand? You should consider your readers (audience) what do they know? What dont they know? The key to a well-written paper of any kind is CLARITY .

Its especially important to achieve clarity early on in your paper so that your readers understand what youre writing about and why. Using the work of others (explaining the existing conversation about your topic of research) allows you to FRAME your topic and ESTABLISH AUTHORIT Y by demonstrating that you have done your homework on this topic. Check out section 1 & 2

HOW TO BEGIN: INTRODUCING WHAT THEY SAY

Some of you may have uncovered an ongoing debate with your research topics. In this case you may want to summarize multiple views of an issue. This will demonstrate your awareness of conflicting approaches to your subject awareness of multiple viewpoints establishes your credibility and authority because it shows that youre well -informed.
See section 3

MOVING ON: Once you have established what they say, dont forget about them. Youve explained the general ideas youre responding to, now keep responding to them You should periodically return to your initial summary (AND YOUR THESIS) to ensure that your paper is a response to your research, and not just a set of generalized observations and facts.

USEFUL TOOLS: SUMMARIZING OTHER PEOPLES IDEAS

So you should respond to other peoples ideas/research. How? You need to map your own claims in relation to what youve found out from others by researching. To summarize something youve read emphasize the key points the author made that are of interest and relevance to your topic. Always keep your own central claim (thesis) in mind when summarizing.

USEFUL TOOLS: SUMMARIZING OTHER PEOPLES IDEAS

Put yourself in their shoes:
Try to summarize without obvious bias, even if you disagree with the author you are summarizing. Your disagreement should come out later, not in the summary itself. Make sure the summary accurately reflects the authors intention, and is not simply a reflection of your own beliefs on the subject. If you cannot present the claims of others without bias, even if you disagree, you lose authority/credibility.

Know where you are going:

Summarize with your own claim in mind. Do not alter what the author says, but present the authors claim in a way that it supports your own (if that is your intention) You must make sure that what they say is relevant to what youre saying do not simply list an articles key points without thinking about whether those points really matter in terms of the issue youre addressing. See section 4

USEFUL TOOLS: QUOTING

Sometimes they said it better than you can and knowing when to directly quote someone lends you authority and credibility because direct quotes act as evidence that others share similar ideas about your claim and ensure that your argument is fair and accurate.

USEFUL TOOLS: QUOTING DOS & DONTS

DO
Choose quotations wisely Surround quotations with an explanatory frame always connect what they say with what you say.

DONT
Quote too much or too little out of laziness Assume the quotation speaks for itself remember, the audience has not done the same research you have

USEFUL TOOLS: HOW DO I QUOTE WISELY

Quote relevant passages
Dont select a quote just to prove youve read your sources this does not do much for your credibility. Use quotes that back you up not quotes that distract.

Frame your quotations

Dont dangle your quotations; without an explanation your readers will have to guess at why you thought your chosen quotation was relevant. To introduce your quote, explain who is speaking and set up what the quotation says (give CONTEXT), then follow up with why it is important to your own claim and how you interpret it.

See section 5

USEFUL TOOLS: QUOTING

BEWARE OF OVEREXPLANATION I know weve just spent a few slides on explaining your quotes, but use discretion. Some quotes will require significant explanation, while others speak more or less for themselves. In general, if your quote is lengthy or uses lots of technical jargon (as in, terminology that is specific to your field and not very well known or understood by outsiders) it will require more explanation. EVEN MORE GENERALLY, HOWEVER, when in doubt, go for it. Its always better to be extra clear about what you take a quote to mean than to leave it dangling.

I SAY

Making YOUR argument

RESPONDING TO THEY
So weve heard all about how to bring the work of others into your research paper, but now what? NOW, you need to respond to that work. You need to have your say. Good arguments are not based on exclusive expert knowledge, but on logical thinking about the facts at hand. In your research papers, I would like you to take a position on your topic. If you still havent, find an angle of approach that is debatable it doesnt have to be a hotly contended issue, but it should be something about which you can have an opinion. For example, whether globalization is good for your future industry or why people in your field ought to study a certain subject (why is it important?).

HOW CAN I RESPOND

When it comes down to it, you really have three ways to respond to what youve found out through your research. 1. You can AGREE - Yes 2. You can DISAGREE No 3. You can AGREE WITH A DIFFERENCE Okay, but

BUT WHAT IF ITS NOT THAT SIMPLE?

Its important for you AND your readers to know where you stand. There are surely many subtly dif ferent positions to be taken on any given subject, but at the bottom line, you agree or you disagree. You can get into the messy details later. Ways to set up your position: I agree that ________ I disagree that _________ I am of two minds. I agree that ________, but I cannot agree that ______. (If youre feeling indecisive)

DISAGREEING
If youre stuck for what to write about, disagree with something! This is an easy way to generate an essay find something you can take a position against, summarize it, and argue with it but remember you must offer persuasive reasons why you disagree. Its not enough to simply say I disagree. That wont pass the So what? test. SUPPORT WHAT YOU SAY. If you disagree with something, explain why, in detail, citing your sources.

THE TWIST IT MOVE

If youre feeling particularly crafty about disagreeing, you can pull something called the twist it move, in which you agree with the evidence somebody has presented, but you use that evidence to support your own contradictory position.

DISAGREEMENT DON T BE SCARED

Dont be reluctant to take a position of disagreement in relation to what youve researched. Particularly in this class, disagreeing can be a good exercise in critical thinking even if you dont actually disagree. Besides, when you think about it, youre not really running a risk of hurting anyones feelings or being disagreed with in return were just practicing synthesizing the work of others with our own opinions.

HOW TO AGREE WITH A DIFFERENCE

Most of the time, its impossible to agree with every single thing you find out about a topic. You will likely agree with some or most of what you find, but come across a few things that dont seem right to you. This is important to remember, even when you agree: you want to bring something new to the table generate new ideas by using the ones you agree with as a jumping off point. Remember how research is a conversation you want to contribute something, not just repeat whats already been said.

HOW DO I CONTRIBUTE?
You can point out previously unnoticed evidence or logic that supports the claims youre agreeing with. You may cite personal experience that supports the claim(s). You may use the claims of others to explain something new a situation that the claims will help a reader understand. If the claims you agree with are challenging for people to understand, you can write your own accessible explanation (REMEMBER YOUR AUDIENCE). See section 7

HOW TO AGREE, THE SEQUEL

Dont be afraid to agree as much as some people are afraid of the vulnerable position of disagreeing, others fear the stigma of unoriginality that can come with agreeing. When you agree with people it gives you greater credibility because you can find great information to support your claims. Remember, though, that when you agree with one claim you are likely disagreeing with another AND THIS CAN BE YET ANOTHER ANGLE TO TAKE! See section 8

AGREE/DISAGREE CAN I DO BOTH?

Taking a position that is on neither side can actually help you develop a more complex and original argument. In general, this position will be tipped subtly towards either agreeing or disagreeing, but thats up to you. To present an argument that neither fully agrees nor disagrees, you might use phrasing like:
Yes and no. Yes, but. Although I agree up to a point, I still insist. On the one hand I agree with _______, on the other I disagree that _________.

See section 9

WHEN YOURE REALLY UNSURE OF WHERE YOU STAND

This sort of approach is really useful when youre encountering totally new or challenging information. If you choose to approach your paper in this way you can weigh the pros and cons of a position/claim without definitively coming down on one side or the other. CLARIT Y, as always, is very important but its perfectly fine to make it clear that you are ambivalent/undecided. See section 10 But is it bad to be indecisive?
Yes, ambivalence can frustrate readers, but as with a position of agreement or disagreement, you need only to support your position. If you are undecided about where you stand, explain why. Thats all it takes.

WHAT DO YOU SAY VS. WHAT DO THEY SAY

Dont confuse your readers!

SIGNALING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WHAT YOU SAY AND WHAT THEY SAY
CLARIT Y its going to keep haunting us. Make sure that it is always clear who is saying what in your research paper are you quoting someone else, summarizing/paraphrasing someone else, or giving your own opinion?
See section 11

USING THE WORD I How can you dif ferentiate your own views from those of others if you dont use I? Using I is perfectly fine as long as, like always, you CLEARLY SUPPORT THE CLAIMS THAT YOU MAKE. Dont use I exclusively, though, thats just as boring as never using I.

SMOOTH MOVES: EMBEDDED REFERENCES

You can refer to the opinions of others or your own smoothly, without breaking your train of thought.
See section 12 Youve got to make a point of alerting readers to whose voice you are using (your own or your research), or else they will become

SMOOTH MOVES: PLANTING A NAYSAYER

As mentioned, when you choose to agree with one claim, you are probably disagreeing with another. When it comes to establishing your credibility and authority, its actually better if you make a note of potential disagreements with your argument yourself. Anticipating others potential disagreements with your argument demonstrates that you have considered all of the angles, and that you have thoroughly investigated your topic. It also works as a pre -emptive strike your critics will have fewer holes to poke in your argument if you show them that youre aware of those holes already.

SMOOTH MOVES: HOW TO PLANT YOUR NAYSAYERS

You can leave your naysayer s as nameless and faceless (skeptics, some reader s, many) or, if you know more specifically who they might be, you can name them (feminists, biologists, followers of Malcolm X, social Dar winists, etc.) See section 13 DONT STEREOT YPE: While its okay to name your naysayer s, be sure to avoid stereotyping your potential reader s, because they wont appreciate that and it will undermine your credibility.

REPRESENTING & ANSWERING OBJECTIONS

When you do include an opposing view, take it seriously. If you speed past an objection you lose as much if not more credibility than if youd never mentioned it at all. When you present objections, you should represent them fairly, but also make sure that youre able to account for the opposing view. Dont present something you cant refute this will also cost you credibility.
The best way to dismiss an objection is by partially agreeing with it. Generally, you will find at least part of a claim you can agree with. See section 14

SO WHAT?

It always comes back to this.

WHY SHOULD MY READER CARE?

Readers NEED to know what is at stake in the text that theyre reading why should they care? Too often as writers, we assume that our reader will understand the importance of what we have to say or that they will figure it out on their own. ONE MORE TIME, THOUGH, CLARIT Y. Making your intentions explicit to your reader is always better than leaving it up to chance whether or not the importance of your paper will reveal itself to them.

WHO CARES VS. SO WHAT

When you answer the question who cares, you are identifying to whom your paper will matter. It should matter to your general audience, but may be intended to matter more to a more specific audience. Who needs to hear about what youve researched? See section 15 In terms of general readers, so what is the more important question. By answering so what, you may link your argument to some larger matter your readers already deem important. JUSTIFY THE IMPORTANCE OF YOUR CLAIMS See section 16

DONT FORGET!
Yo u m u s t c i te yo u r s o u r c e s c h e c k o u t yo ur citation styles formatting for i n - tex t citations.

Research paper writing info from They Say, I Say, 2010