GASEOUS EXCHANGE AND ITS CONTROL

• Gaseous exchange and its control in mammals.

– Structure of an alveolus
– Structure & characteristics of haemoglobin
– Transport of O2 & CO2 by haemoglobin
– O2 dissociation curves of haemoglobin & myoglobin.
– O2 dissociation curves of haemoglobin as in fetus and adult
– Bohr effect

• Role of chemoreceptors in controling breathing

• Gaseous exchange and control in plants

– Structure and functions of guard cells
– Regulation of the stomatal opening and closing
• Starch-sugar hyphothesis
• Potassium ion hyphothesis
 OBJECTIVES
• describe how gaseous exchange occurs in lungs

• describe the structure of haemoglobin and its affinity for oxygen by

using the oxygen dissociation curves

• explain roles of haemoglobin in oxygen and carbon dioxide

transportation in blood

• explain the control of ventilation

• describe lung volumes and capacities

• describe the mechanism of stomatal opening and closing

9.1.1 : GASEOUS EXCHANGE
 Microscopic structure of the alveolus as
the basic unit of lung
• consists of tiny air sacs where
gaseous exchange occurs

• each lung packed with 1.5-2.5

million alveoli

• diameter is 0.2 millimeter

each

• enmeshed in capillaries

• wall of each alveolus is only

one cell thick

• thin layer of watery fluid

lining each alveolus
 Adaptation of the lung for gaseous
exchange
• consists of millions alveoli to
maximize respiratory surface
area

• thin-walled alveoli resemble tiny

bubbles, therefore provided
enormous surface areas of
diffusion

• alveoli’s surface remains moist,

thus gasses can easily dissolve in
thin fluid and diffuse through the
alveolar and capillary membranes

• both alveolar wall and the

adjacent capillary walls are only
one cell thick, the air is extremely
close to the blood in the capillaries
 Structure of heamoglobin
• the oxygen-carrying protein
in red blood cells

• consists of two pairs of very

similar peptides, held together
by hydrogen bonds

• each peptide holds an iron-

containing organic molecule
called a haem that can bind
one molecule of oxygen

• therefore, one haemoglobin

(Hb) molecule binds up to
four oxygen molecules
•Hb + 4O2 ⇔ Hb(O2)4
Oxyhaemoglobin

•HHbNH2 + CO2 ⇔ HHbNH2CO2

Carbamino-haemoglobin

•Hb + CO ⇔ COHb
carboxyhaemoglobin
 Characteristics of haemoglobin as
respiratory pigment
• an effective respiration
pigment due to its high
affinity to O2 although
the partial pressure of
O2 is below 20mmHg

• release O2 easily
when the partial
pressure of O2 is low
 O2 dissociation curve of Hb
• an S- shaped curve
obtained when the
percentage O2 saturation
of blood is plotted against
the partial pressure of O2

• an S-shaped curve is
obtained due to the way
that Hb binds to O2

• the first O2 molecules that

combines with the Hb
alters the shape of the
molecule in such a way
that it is easier for the next
O2 molecule to join
• conversely, when one
molecule of O2 dissociates
from the
oxyhaemoglobin, the Hb
shape is adjusted to make
release of successive
molecules of O2
increasingly easy

• at a partial pressure of
zero, no O2 is attached to
the Hb molecule

• this is due to the ability of

Hb to release O2 easily
when the partial pressure
of O2 is low
• at an O2 partial pressure of
approximately 30 mm Hg,
50 % of the Hb is present
as HbO8

• this is caused by the high

affinity Hb to O2 at partial
pressure of 73 mm Hg,
the Hb is completely
saturated with O2 this
point is called loading
tension

• at higher partial pressures

of O2, further uptake of O2
can occur, but 100%
saturation of Hb is rarely
achieved
O dissociation curve of Hb and myoglobin
2

in comparison

• myoglobin molecule is widely distributed in animals and is

particularly common in skeletal muscle tissues of mammals

• very similar to the Hb subunits with respect to both amino

acid sequence and three dimensional structure

• this pigment may also bind to O2, but since there is only one
haem group there can be no cooperative binding
• displays great affinity for O2

• its O2 dissociation curve is displaced well to the left of Hb it only

begins to release O2 when the partial pressure of O2 is below 20 mm
Hg
• in this way, it acts as a store of O2 in resting muscle, only releasing it
when supplies of HbO8 have been exhausted

• the myoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve is hyperbolic rather than

sigmoidal
 Oxygen dissociation curves of haemoglobin in fetus and
mother
• the fetus has a very high
O2 demand
O2 dissociation curves of Hb in fetus
• the fetal Hb is of a type and mother
which has a higher affinity

O2 saturation of Hb (%)
for O2 than the mother’s Fetus
Hb
Mother
• O2 is therefore readily
unloaded from the
mother’s blood to the fetal
blood
PO2 (mmHg)

• a graph for fetal Hb shows

a shift to the left from the
curve for adult Hb
 Effect of partial pressure of carbon dioxide
towards O dissociation
2

(Bohr’s effect)
• once blood has
travelled to the body
tissues, O2 is released

• this is due to the drop

in the partial pressure
of the O2 and a rise in
the partial pressure of
carbon dioxide in
respiring cells
• a rise in the partial
pressure of the carbon
dioxide lowers the
affinity of Hb for O2
which is therefore
released

• this is called the Bohr

effect or the Bohr shift

• an increase in the
partial presure of
CO2 shifts the O2
dissociation curve to
the right
That’s all
for
today
 CO2
TRANSPORTATION
IN BLOOD
CO2 TRANSPORTATION IN BLOOD
• the red blood cell and Hb both
play a significant part in this
process as well as in the
transport of O2

• CO2 is carried by the blood in

three different ways
– in aqueous solution (5%)
– combined with protein
(10-20%)
– as hydrogencarbonate
(85%)
 CO is carried by the blood in three
2

different ways
i) in aqueous solution
(5%)

• most of the CO2

carried in this way is
transported in physical
solution

• a very small amount is

carried as carbonic
acid (H2CO3)
ii) combined with protein (10-
20%)

• CO2 combines with the amine (NH2)

group of Hb to form a neutral
carbamino-haemoglobin compound

HHbNH2 + CO2 ⇔ HHbNH2CO2

Carbamino-haemoglobin

• the amount of CO2 that is able to

combine with Hb depends on the
amount of O2 already being carried by
the Hb

• the less the amount of O2 being

carried by the Hb molecule, the more
iii) as hydrogenbicarbonate ion, HCO3- (85%)
• CO2 produced by the tissues
diffuses passively into the
bloodstream and passes into the
erythrocytes where it combines
with water to form carbonic
acid

• this process is catalysed by the

enzyme carbonic anhydrase
found in the erythrocytes and
take less than one second to
occur

• carbonic acid then proceeds to

dissociate into hydrogen and
hyrogenbicarbonate ions;
• when the erythrocytes leave the
lungs their oxyhaemoglobin is
weakly acidic and associated with
potassium ions (KHbO2)

• in areas of high CO2

concentrations (as at the tissue),
O2 is easily given up by
oxyhaemoglobin

• when this happen, the Hb

becomes strongly asidic

• it dissociates from the carbonic

acid forming haemoglobinic acid
(HHb)

• the potassium ions associate with

hydrogencarbonate ions to form
potassium hydrogencarbonate
 KHbO2 ⇔ KHb + O2

H+ + HCO3- + KHb ⇔ HHb + KHCO3

• by accepting hydrogen
ions, Hb acts as a buffer
molecule

• this enables large

quantities of carbonic
acid to be carried to the
lungs without any major
alteration in blood pH
• the cell surface membrane of an
erythrocytes is relatively
impermeable to the passage of
sodium and potassium ions

• however a cation pump

operates and expels large
numbers of sodium ions into
the plasma

• the majority of
hydrogenbicarbonate ions
formed within the erythrocytes
diffuse out into the plasma
along a concentration gradient
and combine with sodium to
form sodium
hydrogencarbonate
• the loss of
hydrogenbicarbonate
ions from the
erythrocytes is
balanced by chloride
ions diffusing into
erythrocytes from
the plasma

• electrochemical
neutrality is
maintained

• this is called chloride

shift
• potassium
hydrogencarbonate which
formed in the erythrocytes
is also capable of
dissociating

• some of the chloride ions

which enter the
erythrocytes combine with
potassium ions to form
potassium chloride, while
the hydrogencarbonate
ions diffuse out

• when hydrogencarbonate
leaves the erythrocytes,
the excess H+ ions which
remain decrease the pH
within the erythrocyte
• this caused the
dissociation of
potassium
oxyhaemoglobin
(KHbO2) into O2 and
potassium Hb

• when the erythrocytes

reach the lungs, the
reverse process occurs
 LUNG VOLUME AND CAPACITIES
• lung capacity of an average man is approximately 5 dm3

• during quiet breathing he will breathe in and out about 450 cm3 of air

• this is called tidal volume

• if after a normal tidal inspiration he continues to inhale, he can take in a
further 1500 cm3 of air

• this is called inspiratory reserve volume

• if after a tidal expiration the man continues to exhale, he can force out a
further 1500 cm3 of air

• this is termed as expiratory reserve volume

• the amount of air exchanged after a forced inspiration followed
immediately by a forced expiration is termed the vital capacity
even after forced expiration, 1500 cm3 of air remain in the lungs

• this cannot be expelled and is called residual air

• during inspiration about 300 cm3 of the tidal volume reaches the
lungs, while the remaining 150cm3 remains in the respiratory
tubes, where gaseous exchange does not occur

• when expiration follows, this air is expelled from the body as

unchanged room air and is called dead space air
• the air that reaches the lungs mixes with the 1500 cm3 of air already present in the
alveoli

• its volume is small compared to that of the alveolar air and complete renewal of air
in lungs is therefore a necessarily slow process

• the air that comes into close contact with the blood is alveolar air

• it contains less O2 than inspired air, but more CO2

 LUNG VOLUME AND CAPACITIES
• Tidal volume
– The volume of air that is moved in and out with each breath during normal rhythmic
breathing
• Inspiratory reserve volume
– The additional volume of air that can be forced out after a normal tidal inspiration
• Expiratory reserve volume
– The additional volume of air exchanged after a forced inspiration followed immediately
by a forced expiration
• Residual air
– The volume of air which remains in the lungs and cannot be expelled even after forced
expiration
• Dead space
– The tidal volume which remains in the respiratory tubes during inspiration and gaseous
exchange does not occur

• Vital capacities
– The volume of air exchanged after a forced inspiration followed immediately by a forced
expiration
9.1.2 CONTROL
Control of ventilation

• Nervous system usually controls respirations automatically to meet body’s demands

without our conscious concern

• Respiratory centre is the area from which nerve impulses are sent
• It is located in the brain stem
• It consists of groups of neurons in the brain stem
• It can be divided into three areas:
i. The medullary rhythmicity area in medulla oblongata
ii. The pneumotaxic area in the pons
iii. The apneustic area in the pons
Medullary rhythmicity area

• It controls the basic rhythm of respiration

• both inspiratory and expiratory areas are located here

• the basic rhythm of respiration is determined by nerve impulses generated in the

inspiratory area
• nerve impulses from the active inspiratory area travel via nerves to the muscles of inspiration
(diaphragm and external intercostal muscles)

• these muscles contract and inspiration occurs

• the expiratory neurons remain inactive during normal quiet respiration

• when the inspiratory neurons become inactive again, the muscles relax, expiration occurs and
the cycle repeat itself over and over
2) pneumotaxic area

• located in the upper

pons
• transmits inhibitory
impulses to the
inspiratory area
• it help turn off the
inspiratory area before
the lungs become too
full of air
3) the apneustic area

• located in the lower

pons
• stimulates the
inspiratory area to
prolong inspiration,
thus inhibiting
expiration
• The main stimulus that
controls the breathing rate
is the concentration of
CO2 in blood

• when CO2 levels increase,

chemoreceptors in the
carotid and aortic bodies
of the blood system are
stimulated to discharged
nerve impulses which pass
to the inspiratory centre
• the inspiratory centre
sends out impulses via the
phrenic and thoracic
nerves to the diaphragm
and intercostal musles

• these muscles increase the

rate at which they contract

• this automatically
increases the rate at which
inspiration takes place
• inspiratory activity
inflates the alveoli, and
stretch receptors located
here and in the bronchial
they are stimulated to
discharge impulses to the
expiratory centre which
automatically cuts off
inspiratory activity

• the respiratory muscles

therefore relax and
expiration takes place
• after this had occurred, the
alveoli are no longer stretched
and the stretch receptors no
longer stimulated

• the expiratory centre becomes

inactive and inspiration can
begin again

• the whole cycle is repeated

rhythmically throughout the life
of the organism
That’s all
for
today
GASEOUS EXCHANGE
AND CONTROL IN
PLANT
 Stomata
Structure and function of
guard cells in the stomatal
opening and closing
mechanisms

– stoma is a micro pore

that located between a
specialised epidermal cells
called guard cells

– the guard cells occur in

pairs side by side

– guard cells have a

distinctive shape
• the only epidermal
cells that contain
chloroplasts

• Guard cell has a

thinner outer wall
and a thicker, less
elastic, inner wall

• the size of stoma is

adjusted by the
turgidity of the
guard cells
Regulation of stomatal opening and closing

• due to the guard cells turgidity

 three mechanisms

• Starch-sugar hypothesis (photosynthesis in the guards

cells and accumulation of sugar)
• CO2 concentration in the leaf (related to starch-sugar
hyphothesis)
• Potassium ion concentration of the guard cells
i. Starch-sugar hypothesis (photosynthesis in the
guards cells and accumulation of sugar)

• an increase in sugar concentration (from

phothosynthesis) in guard cells during the day lead to
– the decrease in their solute potential and
– entry of water by osmosis
– cells become turgid
• The outer wall of guard cell is thinner and more elastic than
the inner wall.

• The increase in turgor pressure causes the guard cells to

curve outward

• Stoma open
• The decrease in sugar concentration (light dependent
reaction not occur) in guard cells during the night lead to
– the increase in their solute potential and
– outflow of water by osmosis
– cells become flaccid
– causes the closing of stoma
• CO2 concentration in the leaf (related to
starch-sugar hyphothesis)

• at night, carbonic acid is accumulated in the

interstitial cells

• carbonic acid is dissociate into hydrogen and

hydrogencarbonate ions

H2CO3 ⇔ HCO3- + H+
• this will increase the concentration of H+

• enzyme catalyse the transformation of

glucose-1-phosphate into starch

• this decrease the turgidity of guard cells,

thus the pore is close
• day time, CO2 is used during photosynthesis, the
concentration of H+ is decreased

• phosphorilase catalyse the transformation of starch

into glucose-1-phosphate in the guard cells

• the turgidity of the guard cells increase, the entry of

water by osmosis

• the pore is open

• Potassium ion concentration of the guard cells

• during the day, photosynthesis occurs in the guard cells ,

ATPs are synthesizes

• the ATPs activate the ions pump, increasing the

concentration of potassium ions in the guard cells
• this leads to the decreasing in the solute potential of the
adjacent cells and the entry of water by osmosis

• the pore is open

• during the night, photosynthesis (light dependent
reaction) not occurs,
• ATPs are not synthesizes
• The ions pump become inactive,
– The potassium ion diffuse out of the guard cell
– The concentration of potassium ions in the guard cells
decrease.
• this leads to the increasing in the solute potential of the
adjacent cells and the outflow of water by osmosis

• the pore is close

THE END