Deformation of Solids

Youngs Modulus

The Young Modulus, E is a material property that describes its stiffness and is therefore one of the most important properties in engineering design. Learning outcomes After completing this section, you should be able to: provide a definition of the Young modulus and give its units; explain the terms tensile force, tensile stress, tensile strain, elastic, strong and stiff; differentiate between the terms strength and stiffness; determine the Young modulus experimentally by; describing the apparatus;

measuring the key dimensions of the test wire; using a vernier scale to measure the extension of the wire; generating a straight-line graph of Load vs. extension; evaluating the gradient of the graph; and calculating the Young modulus by substitution into formulae.

Two identical wires are used to eliminate errors due to: 1. Temp changes 2. Sagging of beam A load is attached to the reference wire to remove kinks. The original length of the wire is measured and its diameter found for various points along its length

The area is then found using A=

d
4

Place loads gently on the wire and find the extension each time. After each reading remove load to check that the wire returns to its original length. Wires should be long and thin to give as large an extension as possible for a given load. Plot a graph of load vs. extension and find the gradient = L/e Using the equation: E = FL

eA

E = gradient x initial length area of cross section

A plot of stress vs. strain shows:

Between OA- Hookes law is obeyed. The deformation is elastic. If stress is reduced it returns to its original length. B is the yield point. Beyond B plastic deformation occurs. If stress is reduced it returns along the path CO . It does not

return to its original ' length. D is the ultimate tensile stress. It is the maximum that the wire can withstand. The graph above is for a ductile material e.g. copper. A brittle material would have a shorter region BD. It snaps suddenly e.g. glass

Above X represents brittle material, Y represents a ductile material, Z represents polymeric material e.g. rubber.

Strong- a large stress is needed to break it Stiff- small strains for large stresses (large value of E) Elastic- returns to its unstretched form when stresses are removed Plastic- undergoes permanent deformation under large stress rather than cracking Brittle- breaks suddenly as cracks travel through it. Little or no plastic deformation Ductile- undergoes great deal of plastic deformation before breaking.

Energy
Energy has to be supplied to stretch the wire. This energy is stored as strain energy. When wire is unloaded, this energy can be recovered. Energy stored = work done in deforming it Work done = force x extension average force x extension W= Fe

Average force is used since force is not constant

The area under the Force extension graph = work done Area under the stress strain graph = energy per unit volume = Fe

AL
= stress x strain

Strain gauge

A strain gauge is made by sealing a length of very fine wire in a small rectangle of thin plastic sheet in such a way that if the plastic is stretched (put under strain), then the wire will also be stretched. In this case, the length of the wire increases and the cross-sectional area decreases.

Strain gauges are glued securely to the material which is to be put under stress in order to monitor the strain in the material. The ends of the wire can be put in an electrical circuit so that when the material stretches, the wire stretches, the resistance changes so that an ammeter and a voltmeter will give readings that can be used to determine the wires resistance.