INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Inferential Statistics

 statistics that permit inferences on

whether relationships observed in a
sample are likely to occur in a larger
population (Polit and Beck, 2004)
 based on the laws of probability
 based on the assumption that the sample
was randomly selected
2 Purposes of Inferential
Statistics
1. Estimating population parameter from
sample data
2. Testing hypothesis about a population
Estimating Population
Parameters From Sample
Data
Sample Error – occurs when the
sample does not accurately reflect the
population
Sample Distribution – a theoretical
frequency distribution that is based on
an infinite number of samples
--based on mathematical formulas and
logic
Statistical Inference
• The process of inferring attributes about the
population based on information from a
sample, using laws of probability
• 2 Types of Error in Statistical Inference
A. Type I or Alpha Error
- the researchers’ rejection of the null
hypothesis when it is actually true
B. Type II or Beta Error
- the researchers’ acceptance of a null
hypothesis that is actually false
Level of Significance

 also referred as alpha level (α)

 is the probability of making a type I
error, or the probability of rejecting a
true null hypothesis
 two most frequently used significance
levels are: .05 and .01
Six Steps in Tests of
Significance (Gillis, 2002)
1. State the research and the null hypothesis
2. Determine where the outcome will fall in the
sampling distribution if the null hypothesis is to be
rejected
3. Indicate the chosen significance level to be used in
the test ( usually 0.05)
4. Compute the test statistics
5. Note whether the test indicates if you should accept
or reject the null hypothesis
6. Interpret the findings
Statistical Tests

 an analytic tool that estimates the

probability that obtained results from a
sample reflect true population values
 2 Broad Classes of Statistical Tests
A. Parametric Tests
B. Nonparametric Tests
Parametric Tests
 characterized by three attributes:
1. they involve the estimation of a
parameter
2. they require measurements on at
least an interval scale
3. they involve several assumptions,
such as the assumption that the
variables are normally distributed in the
population
t - Test
• sometimes referred to as Student’s t
• for testing differences in group means
• used when there are 2 independent
groups (ex. male versus female), and
when the sample is paired or
dependent (ex. when pretreatment and
post-treatment scores are compared for
a single group
Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA)
 for testing differences between means
where there are 3 or more groups, or of
2 or more independent variables
 the statistics computed is the F – ratio
statistics
 Nonparametric Tests
 are used when the data are nominal or ordinal or when a
normal distribution cannot be assumed

Chi-Square Test ( X2 )
• most commonly used statistics with nominal data
• primarily used in cross-table analysis and is used when:
1. the dependent variable is a nominal one
2. you wish to determine if frequencies vary across
categories
3. the expected frequencies are above 5 in most cells of
the table
4. the variables are normally distributed
5. the measures of the variables are independent of one
another
 Chi-Square Test ( X ) 2

 most commonly used statistics with nominal data

 primarily used in cross-table analysis and is used
when:
1. the dependent variable is a nominal one
2. you wish to determine if frequencies vary
across categories
3. the expected frequencies are above 5 in
most cells of the table
4. the variables are normally distributed
5. the measures of the variables are
independent of one another
 Other Nonparametric
Tests
Fisher’s Exact Test - when the total sample size is
small or when there are cells with o frequencies
McNemar Test - when proportions being compared are
from two paired groups
Pearson’s r - calculated when two variables are
measured on at least the interval scale, is both
descriptive and inferential
Spearman rho - used when the assumptions of
Pearson’s analysis cannot be met
Kendall’s Tau - used when both variables have been
measured at the ordinal level
 Guidelines for Critiquing
Inferential Statistics
1. Are inferential statistics presented in the
research report?
2. If inferential statistics are present, is enough
information presented for the reader to
determine whether the appropriate tests were
used?
3. Is the reader provided with the calculated value
of the inferential statistic, the degree of
freedom, and the level of significance that was
obtained?
4. Were the parametric or nonparametric tests
used when the other type would have been
more appropriate?
 Guidelines for Critiquing
Inferential Statistics contd.
1. Are the chosen tests appropriate considering
the level of measurement of the variables,
the number of groups that were tested, the
size of the sample, etc?
2. Are inferential statistics presented for each
hypothesis stated in the study?
3. Are the results of the inferential tests clearly
and thoroughly discussed?
4. Are the results presented both in the text
and in tables?