Population Ecology

Population Ecology

Certain ecological principles govern the 
growth and sustainability of all 
populations­­including human 
populations  
 Ecological Principles Apply to All
Species

Humans, Palms, Crabs, Seagulls, algae, etc.

 Limits to Growth

A population’s growth depends on

the resources of its environment
 Deer introduced to Angel Island
– Population outstripped resources
Angel Island
 Angel Island 1
 A. Angel Island is a game reserve in San
Francisco Bay near Sausalito
 B. In the early 1900's well-meaning nature
lovers introduced deer to the island
 C. With no natural predators to control
them the population quickly rose to a level
much higher than the island could support
 D. Well meaning people brought food to
the island to feed the deer, causing the
population to further increase
 Angel Island 2
 E. Eventually the population grew to
over 300, much too large for the
island to support
 F. As the deer began to starve they
ate most of the native vegetation.
Without vegetation the soil started
washing away and the island
environment rapidly deteriorated
 Angel Island - 3
 G. It was proposed that hunters kill some
of the deer and/or that coyotes, the deer’s
natural predators, be introduced to the
island. However many people objected
because they viewed both alternatives as
cruel
 H. Eventually two thirds of the population
was rounded up and moved to the
mainland, at a cost of $3,000 per deer
 Angel Island - 4
 I. However, tracking studies revealed that
the majority of the deer moved to the
mainland were killed by cars, dogs,
coyotes and hunters within 60 days

 J. The story of Angel Island illustrates a

basic ecological principle: a population's
growth is dependent on the resources of
its environment. Human intervention could
only postpone, not prevent the inevitable
 Angel Island - 5
 K. Many environmental problems are simply the
result of a lack of understanding of basic
ecological principles by politicians, lawyers,
economists, the general public and even well
intentioned "environmentalists". Human
ignorance of simple ecological principles often
leads to disastrous results

 From:
http://arnica.csustan.edu/boty1050/Ecology/ecol
ogy.htm
 Human Population Problems

 Over 6 billion people alive

 About 2 billion live in poverty
 Most resources are consumed by the
relatively few people in developed
countries
 Population Growth
 For
most of human history, humans
have not been very numerous
compared to other species.
– It took all of human history to reach 1
billion.
– 150 years to reach 3 billion.
– 12 years to go from 5 to 6 billion.
 Human population tripled during the
twentieth century.
Human Population History
 U.S. POPClock Projection

 According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census, the

resident population of the United States,
projected to 03/21/05 at 17:04 GMT (EST+5) is
 295,707,750
 COMPONENT SETTINGS
 One birth every.................................. 7
seconds One death every..................................
11 seconds One international migrant (net)
every............ 24 seconds Net gain of one person
every..................... 12 seconds
 Population

 A group of individuals of the same species 
occupying a given area during a particular 
period of time
 Can be described by demographics

– Vital statistics such as size, density, 
distribution, and age structure  
 Population Age Structure

 Divide population into age

categories
 Population’s reproductive base
includes members of the
reproductive and pre-reproductive
age categories
Population Age Structure Diagram
 Question 1
1. How did the community respond to
the Angel Island deer problem?
 Answer 1
1. How did the community respond to
the Angel Island deer problem?

The community demanded that

the deer be moved to the
mainland, rather than be killed
by hunters.
 Question 2
 2.Ultimately what happen to most of
the deer?
 Answer 2
 2.Ultimately what happen to most of
the deer?

They died from car impacts, dogs,

coyotes, and hunters.
 Question 3
 3.What is there to be learned from
the Angel Island experience?
 Answer 3
 3.What is there to be learned from
the Angel Island experience?

Answers will vary….. But many

will include an element of
“unexpected consequences”….
 Question 4
4. Define the term, population.
 Answer 4
4. Define the term, population.

   A group of individuals of the same 
species occupying a given area during 
a particular period of time.
 Question 5
5. What is a population age
structure diagram?
 Answer 5
5. What is a population age
structure diagram?

A demographic analytic method that divides

a population into age categories (often by
gender) and displays it as a graph.
 Question 6
6. A population’s ______ _____
includes members of the
reproductive and pre-reproductive
age categories.
 Answer 6
6. A population’s reproductive base
includes members of the
reproductive and pre-reproductive
age categories.
 Density & Distribution
 Number of
individuals in some
specified area of
habitat
 Crude density clumped

information is more nearly uniform

useful if combined
with distribution
data
random Figure 45.2
Page 808
Clumped Distribution
(STOPPED)
 Determining Population Size
 Direct counts are most accurate but 
seldom feasible

 Can sample an area, then extrapolate

 Capture­recapture method is used for 
mobile species
 Population Estimate
 How could you determine the
population size of the students in
Robinson Hall?

The number of revelers on the beach?

 Does Time and Place Make a
Difference?

Hilton Head

Daytona Beach
 Capture-Recapture Method

 Capture, mark, and release

individuals

 Return later and capture second

sample

 Count the number of marked

individuals and use this to
estimate total population
 Example:
Capture - Recapture
 In 1970, naturalists wanted to estimate
the number of pickerel fish in Dryden Lake
in central New York State. They captured
232 pickerel, put a mark on their fins,
and returned the fish to the lake. Several
weeks later, another sample of 329
pickerel fish were captured. Of this
second sample, 16 had marks on their
fins. (Chaterjee in Mosteller et al.
Statistics by Example: Finding Models).
Chain Pickerel
 How Many Pickerel Were in the
Lake?
 N = total number of pickerel in lake
 NM = total number of marked pickerel
(232)
 RC = Number of recaptured pickerel (16)

 NS = number of fish in sample (329)

 NM/N = RC/NS
 N = (NM x NS)/RC
 Solution
N = (232 x 329)/16

N = 4770 pickerel in the lake

(estimate)

 This
is an example of how the
“Capture/Recapture” method works.
 Assumptions
 The sampling is random
 The marked organisms will not be harmed
by the capture and markings
 The marked organisms will not avoid
recapture
 The samples are statistically large enough
to avoid problems with sampling error
 No significant emigration/immigration
occurs
 The sampling is done promptly
 Question 7 (Stopped here
3/4/2008)
7. Define crude population density.
 Answer 7
7. Define crude population density.

The number of individuals in

some specified area of habitat.
It does not take into
consideration the distribution of
organisms.
 Question 8
8. What are two distribution patterns
(there are three)?
 Answer 8
8. What are two distribution patterns
(there are three)?

Clumped
Random
Uniform
(Any two will do….)
 Question 9
9. State two methods of determining
population size (there are three).
 Answer 9
9. State two methods of determining
population size (there are three).

 Direct counts 

 Can sample an area, then extrapolate

 Capture­recapture method
Changes in Population Size

 Immigration adds individuals

 Emigration subtracts individuals

 Births add individuals

 Deaths subtract individuals
 Zero Population Growth

 Interval in which number of births

is balanced by number of deaths
 Assume no change as a result of
migration
 Population size remains stable
 Per Capita Rates (Stopped )
 Rates per individual
 Total number of events in a time
interval divided by the number of
individuals
 Per capita birth rate per month =
Number of births per month
Population size
 r
 Net reproduction per individual per
unit time (Intrinsic rate of natural
increase) a constant the units are
inverse time
 Variable combines per capita birth
and death rates (assuming both
constant)
 Can be used to calculate rate of
 Exponential Growth Equation

G = rN

G is population growth per unit time

 r is net reproduction per individual
per unit time
 N is population size
 Exponential Growth
(STOPPED)
 Population size
expands by ever
increasing
increments during
successive intervals
 The larger the
population gets, the
more individuals
there are to
reproduce Figure 45.4
Page 810
 (r) Strategies

 Short life
 Rapid growth
 Early maturity
 Many small offspring.
 Little parental care.
 Little investment in individual offspring.

 Adapted to unstable environment.

 Pioneers, colonizers
 Niche generalists
 Prey
 Regulated mainly by extrinsic factors.
 Low trophic level.
Weedy Species – “r Strategists”
 Opportunistic Species - Quickly appear when opportunities
arise.
– Many weeds.
 Pioneer Species - Can quickly colonize open, disturbed, or
bare ground.
 Effect of Deaths

 Population grows exponentially as long as per

capita death rates are lower than per capita
birth rates
25% mortality
between divisions  

Figure 45.5
Page 811
 Question 10
10. What are two rates that increase
population size?
 Answer 10
10. What are two rates that increase
population size?
Birth rate

Immigration rate
 Question 11
11. When is a zero population rate
attained?
 Answer 11
11. When is a zero population rate
attained?

When: births + immigration = deaths + emigration

 Question 12
12. State the Exponential Growth
Equation.
 Answer 12
12. State the Exponential Growth
Equation.

G = rN
 Question 13
13. Given G = rN, what do the
symbols represent?
 Answer 13
13. Given G = rN, what do the
symbols represent?

G is population growth per unit

time
 r is net reproduction per
individual per unit time
 N is population size
 Question 14
14. What type of organisms are “r
strategists”?
 Answer 14
14. What type of organisms are “r
strategists”?

Weedy species and pioneer

species
 Question 15
15. State three characteristics of “r
strategists”.
 Answer 15
15. State three characteristics of “r strategists”.
 Short life
 Rapid growth
 Early maturity
 Many small offspring.
 Little parental care.
 Little investment in individual offspring.

 Adapted to unstable environment.

 Pioneers, colonizers
 Niche generalists
 Prey
 Regulated mainly by extrinsic factors.
 Low trophic level.
 Biotic Potential

 Maximum rate of increase per

individual under ideal conditions
 Varies between species
 In nature, biotic potential is rarely
reached
 Limiting Factors

 Any essential resource that is in 

short supply
 All limiting factors acting on a 

population dictate sustainable 
population size
 Carrying Capacity (K)

 Maximum number of individuals that

can be sustained in a particular
habitat
 Logistic growth occurs when
population size is limited by carrying
capacity
 Logistic Growth Equation
G = rmax N ((K-N)/K)
 G = population growth per unit time
 rmax = maximum population growth rate
per unit time
 N = number of individuals
 K = carrying capacity
 Logistic Growth
 As size of the population increases,
rate of reproduction decreases

 When the population reaches carrying

capacity, population growth ceases
 Logistic Growth Graph
initial carrying
capacity

new carrying
capacity

Figure 45.6
Page 812
 K Strategists
 Long life
 Slower growth

 Late maturity

 Fewer large offspring.

 High parental care and protection.

 High investment in individual

offspring.
 More on K Strategists
 Adapted to stable environment.
 Later stages of succession.

 Niche specialists

 Predators (often, but not always)

 Regulated mainly by intrinsic

factors.
 High trophic level.
Top Predators
 Question 16
16. Define biotic potential.
 Answer 16
16. Define biotic potential.

 Maximum rate of increase per

individual under ideal conditions
 Question 17
17. What is “K”?
 Answer 17
17. What is “K”?

 Maximum number of individuals

that can be sustained in a
particular habitat (carrying
capacity)
 Question 18
18. State the logistic equation.
 Answer 18
18. State the logistic equation.

G = rmax N ((K-N)/K)
 Question 19
19. Given the logistic equation,

G = rmax N (K-N/K)

What do the symbols stand for?

 Answer 19
19. Given the logistic equation,

G = rmax N (K-N/K)

What do the symbols stand for?

 G = population growth per unit time
 rmax = maximum population growth rate per unit time
 N = number of individuals
 K = carrying capacity
 Question 20
20.Refering to the former equation,
what happens to G as N approaches
K?
 Answer 20
20.Refering to the former equation,
what happens to G as N approaches
K?

G (growth rate) approaches zero. The

population stops growing.
 Overshooting Capacity
 Population may
temporarily
increase above
carrying capacity
 Overshoot is
usually followed by
a crash; dramatic
increase in deaths
Reindeer on St. Matthew’s Island

Figure 45.6
Page 812
 Density-Dependent Controls
 Logistic growth equation deals
with density-dependent controls
 Limiting factors become more
intense as population size
increases
 Disease, competition, parasites,
toxic effects of waste products
 Density-Independent Controls

 Factors unaffected by population

density

 Natural disasters or climate changes

affect large and small populations

alike
A Hurricane is an Example of a
Density Independent Factor
Earth Quakes and Tsunamis
 Life History Patterns

 Patterns of timing of reproduction 

and survivorship
 Vary among species

 Summarized in survivorship 

curves and life tables
 Life Table

 Tracks age-specific patterns

 Population is divided into age
categories
 Birth rates and mortality risks are
calculated for each age category
 Survivorship Curves
Graph of age-specific survivorship

Figure 45.8
Page 815
 Type I
 Largeanimals, few offspring, much
parental care, live to an old age
 Type II
Birds are good examples……
Intermediate number of offspring,
some parental care, fairly constant
survival rate over a life
time.
 Type III
These are typical “r strategists”,
weedy species, pesky…..
Short life, many offspring, little
parental care, high
mortality of the
young…
 Predation and Life History 
 Guppy populations vary in life history 

characteristics and morphology
 Differences have genetic basis

 Variation seems to be result of directional 

selection by predators
 Human Population Growth 
(STOPPED 3/25) 

 Population now exceeds 6 billion

 Rates of increase vary among countries

 Average annual increase is 1.26 percent

 Population continues to increase 

exponentially
Human Population History
 Side-Stepping Controls

 Expanded into new habitats

 Agriculture increased carrying
capacity; use of fossil fuels aided
increase
 Hygiene and medicine lessened
effects of density-dependent controls
 Future Growth
 Exponential growth cannot continue
forever
 Breakthroughs in technology may
further increase carrying capacity
 Eventually, density-dependent
factors will slow growth
 Fertility Rates 

 Worldwide, average annual rate of 

increase is 1.26%
 Total fertility rate (TFR) is average 

number of children born to a woman
 Highest in developing countries, lowest 

in developed countries
 Age Structure Diagrams
Show age distribution of a population

Figure 45.14
Page 821

Rapid Slow Zero Negative

Growth Growth Growth Growth
 Population Momentum
 Loweringfertility rates cannot
immediately slow population growth
rate
 Why? There are already many future
parents alive
 Ifevery couple had just two children,
population would still keep growing
for another 60 years
Projected Human Populations
Life Expectancy and Income
 Slowing Growth in China
 World’s most extensive family
planning program
 Government rewards small family
size, penalizes larger families,
provides free birth control, abortion,
sterilization
 Since 1972, TFR down to 1.8 from
5.7
Population
Each Dot Represents 5,000
Persons
 Cities
1 Chongqing 15,300,000
2 Shanghai 13,100,000
3 Beijing 12,200,000
4 Chengdu 9,900,000
5 Harbin 9,200,000
6 Tianjin 9,000,000
7 Shijiazhuang 8,600,000
8 Wuhan 7,200,000
9 Qingdao 7,000,000
10 Changchun 6,800,000
11 Guangzhou 6,700,000
12 Hong Kong 6,700,000
Total 111,700,000

http://www.paulnoll.com/China/Population/population-cities.html
 C

Percent Sex Ratio hin

a's

Age Male Female

Po
pul

of Total Male: Female

atio
n
by

4.87
Ag
e

0--4 9.30% 4.43% 109.95 to 100

and
Sex

%
4.69
fro
m
the

5--9 9.07% 4.38% 107.19 to 100 198

7

%
Ce

5.35
nsu
s

10-14 10.39% 5.04% 106.18 to 100

F
act
ors

%
6.10
in
the
dis

15--19 11.95% 5.89% 103.66 to 100

pro
por

%
tion
ate

5.69 rati
o of

20--24 11.38% 5.68% 100.19 to 100 mal

e/fe

%
3.56
mal

A
e

25--29 6.96% 3.40% 104.70 to 100

nu
mb

%
er
of

4.29 fact
ors

30--34 8.40% 4.11% 104.27 to 100

cau
se

%
the

3.43
dis
pro
por

35--39 6.68% 3.26% 105.13 to 100 tion

ate

%
2.29
nu
mb
er

40--44 4.40% 2.11% 108.45 to 100

of
mal

%
es
to

2.29 fem
ale

45--49 4,40% 2.11% 108.45 to 100 s.

In

%
rur

2.24
al
are

50--54 4.32% 2.08% 107.32 to 100

as
the
mal

%
1.92
es
are
mu

55--59 3.70% 1.78% 107.48 to 100

ch
mo

%
re
val

1.52 uab
le

60-64 2.99% 1.47% 102.84 to 100 tha

n

%
1.10
fem
ale
s.

65--69 2.27% 1.17% 94.15 to 100

The
rea

%
son
is

0.74 that
wh

70--74 1.61% 0.87% 84.74 to 100

en
the

%
you

0.40
ng
peo
ple

75--79 0.95% 0.55% 71.43 to 100 get

mar

%
0.17
rie
d
the

80-84 0.47% 0.30% 57.89 to 100

ne
w

%
cou
ple

0.05 goe
s to

85-89 0.15% 0.10% 45.61 to 100 the

hou

%
se

0.01
of
the

90-94 0.03% 0.02% 38.18 to 100

mal
e
and

% that
fam

95-99 0.01% - - 36.80 to 100

ily
gai
ns
the
fem
ale
to
wor
k
whi
le
the
hou
se
wit
h
the
fem
ale
los
es
the
one
wor
ker
that
the
y
had
.
Als
o
the
old
cou
ple
wit
 Effects of Economic 
Development 
 Total fertility rates (TFRs) are highest in 

developing countries, lowest in 
developed countries
 When individuals are economically 

secure, they are under less pressure to 
have large families
 Sweat Shop, India

Shop size = 2m x 5m. How many people can you count?

http://www.mcps.k12.md.us/curriculum/socialstd/grade7/india/Sweatshop.html
Population Sizes in 2001

Asia 3.7 billion
Europe 727 million
Africa 816 million
Latin America 525 million
North America 316 million
Oceania 31 million
 Human Population Growth
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Atnu

 AnAnimated History of Human

Population Growth
 Demographic
Transition Model
 Based on historical data from
western Europe
 Postulates that as countries become
industrialized, first death rates drop,
then birth rates drop
 Demographic
Transition Model
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
Preindustrial Transitional Industrial Postindustrial

relative
population
size

births

deaths

low increasing very high decreasing low zero negative

Figure 45.16
Page 822
 Resource Consumption
 UnitedStates has 4.7 percent of the
world’s population
 Americans have a disproportionately
large effect on the world’s resources
 Percapita, Americans consume more
resources and create more pollution
than citizens of less developed
nations
Population Ecology
The End