The gonads are the primary sex organs. Gonads produce gametes, or sex cells, and sex hormones.

In males, the testes are the gonads and sperm are

the gametes.

The testes are made of several lobes, each containing the same structures.
Interstitial cells produce testosterone, the primary

male sex hormone. Nurse Cells nourish the developing sperm cells The seminiferous tubules are long, coiled tubes that produce sperm cells. (spermatogenesis) Newly formed sperm cells are sent to the epididymis, where they are stored and mature (about 2 weeks).
The epididymis is a coiled tube almost 23 ft. long!

The hormones required to stimulate and maintain spermatogenesis are not fully produced until puberty.
Testosterone Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Spermatogenesis is also highly sensitive to temperature changes.

Optimal temperature is 2C below body

temperature. Testes are kept in an external scrotum to maintain this temperature.

A sperm stem cell, located in the seminiferous tubules, undergoes mitosis, producing two exact copies
One copy remains the

seminiferous tubule. One copy begins to migrate towards the epididymis.

The sperm stem cell copy undergoes meiosis, which results in the production of four genetically different cells with only half the normal number of chromosomes.

As the sperm cells mature, they develop three body regions, including a head, body, and tail.

The vas deferens is a duct that transports matured sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct. Sperm move by peristalsis, the same rhythmic contraction of smooth muscles seen in the esophagus and intestines. Sperm can also be stored in the vas deferens.

Urinary Bladder Symphysis Pubis (Pelvis) Prostate Vas Deferens Erectile Tissue Urethra Seminal Vesicle Ejaculatory Duct Rectum Bulbourethral Gland Epididymis Testicle Scrotum

Three accessory glands secrete different substances into the sperm cells. This is called semen. The seminal vesicles produce the majority (60%) of semen. Their secretion contains:
Fructose Provides nourishment for sperm cells. Prostaglandins stimulate smooth muscle contractions

The is the beginning of capacitation (activation of sperm cells)

along the male and female reproductive tract. Fibrinogen- Causes semen to temporarily clot inside the vagina (so it doesnt leak back out). Alkaline Secretions Neutralizes acids produced by the prostate gland and vagina.

The prostate gland secretes a milky fluid that continues capacitation. (20-30% of semen)
This secretion adds fluid to the semen and contains

nutrients to aid the sperm.

The bulbourethral gland adds a thick alkaline mucus (pre-ejaculate) to the semen.
This makes for easier transport through the urethra

and into the female and also neutralizes the acidity of the urethra and vagina.

Made up of 3 major components

1. Spermatozoa- 20 million to 100 million sperm

per milliliter of semen 2. Seminal Fluid- fluid components produced by the accessory glands. 3. Enzymes- important enzymes that dissolve mucous secretions in the vagina, kill bacteria, and cause semen to clot.

The penis is the external male reproductive organ. The erectile tissue of the penis is made of two large tubular structures that, when filled with blood, produce an erection. The urethra carries both urine and semen out the penis.

Ejaculation of sperm and semen, which occurs after a period of sexual stimulation, occurs in the following order:
1. Sperm is released from the epididymis. 2. Fluid is added from the seminal vesicles. Semen enters

the ejaculatory duct.

Point of no return.

3.

The prostate and bulbourethral glands add their secretions and sperm is expelled from the body.

During this time, the entrance from the bladder to the urethra is closed, preventing sperm from moving into the urinary tract.

In humans, adult men who choose to be surgically sterilized can have a vasectomy, which severs the vas deferens above each testicle.
The male will still make

testosterone and semen as usual, but sperm cells will not leave the epididymis.

In domesticated animals, the testicles are simply removed, in a surgery called neutering.
These animals will no longer

produce sperm or testosterone. The lack of testosterone decreases aggressive and territorial behaviors in these animals.

The gonads of the female reproductive system are the ovaries. The gametes are the ova, or egg cells.

The female reproductive system is responsible for producing an ovum on a regular cycle, providing a place for fertilization, implantation of the embryo, and nourishing the fetus until it is ready for birth.

Ovary Sacrum

Fallopian Tube
Ligament Myometrium

Endometrium Cervix Urethra Rectum Anus

Bladder Symphysis Pubis Clitoris

Vagina

Fallopian Tube

Myometrium Ovary Cervix Vagina Endometrium

Each ovary is composed of hundreds of saclike structures called follicles. Each follicle consists of:
An oocyte, or an immature egg cell. Follicular cells, which produce the female

reproductive hormones.

Before birth, mitosis occurs inside the ovaries. This produces all the oocytes the woman will need in her lifetime. These oocytes will not be released until puberty, when the brain releases follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).

Every 28 days, one oocyte inside a follicle in one of the ovaries begins to grow and mature. Meiosis begins, just like with sperm cells, but occurs in two separate stages. When Meiosis I occurs, one daughter cell receives most of the cytoplasm. This will be the oocyte. The other daughter cell receives little, and is called the polar body. The polar body degenerates, while the oocyte matures.

When the oocyte is mature, the follicle ruptures, and it is released. This is ovulation. The mature egg cell, called an ovum, begins travelling down the fallopian tubes, heading towards the uterus.

The ovum is gradually moved towards the uterus by the movement of cilia. The ovum lives for about 24 hours, so fertilization must occur here.

The ovum eventually reaches the uterus, located between the bladder and the rectum. The uterus is a small muscular pear shaped organ roughly 3 inches long.
It is held in place by various

The uterus is composed of 3 layers of tissue.

Endometrium (inner),

ligaments.

myometrium (middle), perimetrium (outer)

The uterus has four main functions, all directly related to a fertilized ovum.

Receiving the egg. Attaching to and holding the egg. Nourishing the egg as it grows into a fetus. Ejecting the fetus at birth

If the ovum is not fertilized, it is expelled out the vagina along with the lining of the uterus. This is menstruation.

The cervix is a narrow canal that leads from the uterus into the vagina. Functions of the vagina include:
The vagina then leads to the exterior of the body. The birth canal for a full-term fetus. Receiving the penis during sexual intercourse.

The vagina normally contains resident bacteria in the cervical mucus.

The metabolic activity of these bacteria create an

acidic environment which restricts the growth of other, harmful pathogens.

The female reproductive system undergoes two major changes every 28 days:
A new oocyte matures into an ovum and is released.

The wall of the uterus thickens with blood vessels, in

anticipation of a fertilized embryo.

All of the changes that occur during this 28 day time period (on average) are called the menstrual cycle.
Can extend up to 35 days in healthy individuals

The Menstrual Phase ( Days 1-5 )

The thickened outer layer of the endometrium sheds,

causing a blood-like secretion. During this time, follicles in the ovary start growing and producing estrogen.

The Proliferative Phase ( Days 6-14)

The follicles in the ovary continue growing. Estrogen levels will peak. Whichever follicle produces a mature ovum first will ovulate. The walls of the endometrium are repaired by multiplication of epithelial cells.

The Secretory Stage ( Days 15-28 )

Once the ovum is released, the remaining follicular

tissue begins producing a hormone called progesterone. Progesterone stimulates the outer lining of the endometrium to thicken and uterine glands increase their rates of secretion.
This peaks around 12 days after ovulation

If fertilization occurs, the embryo will produce a

The pregnancy hormone

hormone that stimulates the continued production of progesterone.

If fertilization does not occur, the follicular tissue degenerates, the uterine lining breaks down, and the cycle repeats. The most fertile point in the womans cycle is the days immediately following ovulation.
This timing is not consistent,

however, and can vary by several days with each cycle.

The Woman of Willdendorf 22,000-21,000 BCE. Fertility statue.

The birth control pill is taken daily, and comes in 4-week packs.
21 of the pills contain a combination of

progesterone and estrogen. 7 of the pills are placebos, given to maintain the daily habit of taking the pill.

The two hormones inhibit the brain from producing FSH, preventing a follicle (and ovum) from developing.

Humans have a surgery called tubal ligation, where the fallopian tubes are cut and tied off, preventing ova from reaching the uterus.
Complications from this surgery are more likely than

from a vasectomy.

In domesticated animals, spaying removes the ovaries.

Sperm cells have three distinct regions:

The head contains the DNA and a specialized

organelle called the acrosome.

The acrosome is a large, specialized lysosome that contains enzymes to help the sperm penetrate the outer layer of the egg cell.

The midpiece is wrapped by mitochondria to

generate ATP for movement. The tail is a flagella used for movement.

Sperm swim up through the cervix, uterus, and into the oviducts. When one sperm fertilizes the egg, it begins the second phase of meiosis. Its cell membrane also changes, preventing any other sperm cells from entering. The ovum again gets most of the cytoplasm, leaving a polar body behind to degenerate. The 23 chromosomes of the sperm and egg cell combine into one nucleus, forming a zygote.

The zygote will begin undergoing mitosis within 24 hours of fertilization. The cell keeps dividing for about 7 days until it finally implants into the uterus.

When the embryo implants into the uterus, it is a ball of about 100 cells called a blastocyst. The blastocyst secretes a hormone that stimulates the ovaries to continue producing progesterone.

The uterus will generate the placenta, the amniotic fluid, and the umbilical cord at this time. The placenta forms a blood barrier between the mother and embryo.

Nutrients, oxygen, and waste are

exchanged, but blood is not. The placenta also takes over the role of producing progesterone for the remainder of the pregnancy.

First Trimester
Major organ systems are formed. Fetus begins producing its own

blood supply.

Second Trimester
Sensory organs (eyes, ears)

develop. The fetal position is taken, due to a lack of space. Fetus may experience muscular contractions (kicking)

Third Trimester
Eyes open. Arms and legs are at the final

proportions. Skin and hair develop. Subcutaneous fat develops.

Multiple anatomical changes occur in the mother during pregnancy.

The uterus enlarges to accommodate

the fetus. The ligaments of the pelvis relax. Curvature of the lumbar vertebrae increases.

Digestive System
Morning sickness caused by increased

hormones. Heartburn due to the fetus crowding the stomach. Constipation due to progesterone relaxing smooth muscles throughout the body.
(Decreases peristalsis)

Urinary System
Kidneys process more

blood and produce more urine. Fetus crowds the bladder.

Respiratory System
Lung capacity and respiratory rate increase.

Cardiovascular System
Blood volume increases. Blood pressure and pulse rate increase.

As birth initiates, estrogen levels rise and the uterus begins contracting. The cervix dilates up to 10cm in diameter. The amniotic sac ruptures.
Breaking the water.

Once the cervix is sufficiently dilated, expulsion can begin. Infant exits the body through the cervix and vagina. Normal delivery is head first.

The last stage is the placental stage, where the placenta, umbilical cord, and afterbirth are expelled.

The entire design of both the male and female reproductive system, hormones, organs, fluids, and feelings of pleasure are all intended to maximize the possibility of producing a healthy, fertile offspring.