Drive and Motor Basics

Induction Motor Advantages

Low cost (compared with DC)
Wide availability Low maintenance - no brushes or commutator Rugged design - can be used in harsh environments Low inertia rotor designs High electrical efficiency Wide speed ranges No separately-powered field windings Good open-loop performance

AC MOTOR SIZE
Frame size is directly related to base RPM, for a given Horsepower
Example: 15 HP motors of different base speeds

Base RPM Frame Size Torque Amps

3600 (2-pole)
215 22.5 lb-ft 18.5

1800 (4-pole) 254 45 lb-ft 18.7

1200 (6-pole) 284

67.5 lb-ft
19.3

AC MOTOR FORMULA

SYNCHRONOUS SPEED
SYNC RPM =

VOLTS / HERTZ
V/Hz =

120 x Frequency # of Poles

Motor Line Volts

Motor Frequency

Example: 4-pole motor

SYNC RPM = 120 x 60 / 4poles = 1800 RPM

Example: 460 V, 60 Hz motor V/Hz = 460/60 = 7.66 V/Hz

MOTOR SLIP
%SLIP = SYNC RPM - FULL LOAD RPM X 100 SYNC RPM

VOLTS FREQUENCY V/Hz 460 345 230 115 7.66 60 45 30 15 1 7.66 7.66 7.66 7.66 7.66

Example: 1750 RPM motor % Slip = (1800 - 1750) / 1800 x 100 = 3% Slip

Elements of an Induction Motor: The Stator

Stator Core
Lamination stack of notched steel plates

Elements of an Induction Motor: The Stator (4-pole)

t Rotating magnetic field

The stator induces magnetic lines of flux across the air gap, into the rotor

Elements of an Induction Motor: The Rotor

No direct electrical connections are made to the rotor. All forces are magnetically induced by the stator, via the air gap.

Rotor Bar Current Cast aluminum rotor bars

Carry induced current (skewed bars shown)

Cast aluminum end rings

Electrically joins rotor bars at both motor ends

Laminations of high-silicon content steel

Low-eddy current loss magnetic medium

Typical AC Induction Motor Speed / Torque Curve

Across-the-line operation @ 60 Hz, NEMA B motor

225
Starting Torque Breakdown point: Maximum torque motor can produce before locking rotor

%T

175 150

Pull-Up Torque

Full load operating point (100% current & torque) 1750 RPM (nameplate)

100
Synchronous no-load speed 1800 RPM

Speed

(50 rpm)

SLIP

AC Motor Speed / Torque Curve family on Inverter Power

225

Motor base speed: 1750 RPM

Peak Inverter Torque (150 -200%)

%T

175 150 100

100% load torque operating line

Slip (50 rpm)

Slip (50 rpm)

Speed
At any applied Frequency, an induction motor will slip a fixed RPM at rated load.

Induction Motor Equivalent Circuit

Air Gap

Stator
Stator Resistance
Leakage Reactance

Rotor
Rotor Reactance

R1

XLR XM
Magnetizing Reactance

XR RLOAD = R / Slip* 2
*(R2 is rotor bar resistance)

Although there is no physical connection between rotor and stator, the induced field causes the motor model to behave as if there is.

Motor Current Vectors

Magnetizing Current Torque-Producing Current

Total Current is the Vector sum of Magnetizing and Torque-producing current, which are at a right angle to each other.

Stator
Stator Resistance Leakage Reactance

Air Gap

Rotor
Rotor Reactance

Torque Current

R1

XLR
Magnetizing Current

XR XM RLOAD

Total Current

Motor Current Vectors

Magnetizing Current TorqueProducing Current

LIGHT LOAD

High % of total current is magnetizing current

Magnetizing current is reactive (low p.f.) Measured (total) motor current is not a good indicator of load level.

Magnetizing Current Torque-Producing Current

MEDIUM LOAD & HEAVY LOAD

Most of total current is

torque-producing Motors run at high power factor

Total motor current is proportional to load level.

Magnetizing Current Torque-Producing Current

Motor Operation above Base Speed

Constant Voltage 460

Field Weakened Range

Torque

V/Hz

Frequency increases above base speed, but voltage levels off. The result is increased speed with weakened torque, or constant HP operation. Above 2:1 , motor torque drops sharply & operation is not recommended.

60

120

Hz
Constant Torque 100 Constant Horsepower

%T & HP
50

Hz

60

120

Typical AC Induction Motor Current & Torque Curves

Across-the-line operation @ 60 Hz, NEMA B motor

650

Starting (inrush) current

400

Breakdown current:
maximum level when motor locks rotor (stalls)

225

%T %I

175 150 100

Linear range: 40-150% load (operating range in which current is

proportional to torque)

Speed

AC DRIVE BASICS

MOTOR OUTPUT

LINE INPUT

All AC Drives convert fixed voltage and frequency into variable voltage and frequency, to run 3-phase induction motors.

Types of AC Drives
In todays marketplace, there are 3 basic AC Drive categories: Open loop Volts / Hz Drives
V/Hz

Open loop Sensorless Vector Drives

SENSORLESS

VECTOR

Closed loop Flux Vector Drives

All are Pulse-Width-Modulated (PWM) Some manufacturers offer 2-in-1 & 3-in1 Drives, combining these attributes.

FLUX VECTOR

Volts / Hz Drives

V o l t s

460

Motor Nameplate V/Hz

230

30 900

60 1800
(Base)

Hz
RPM*
*( 4-pole motor)

Motor voltage is varied linearly with frequency

No compensation for motor & load dynamics

Poor shock load response characteristics

AC Motor Torque & HP vs. Speed

Torque 100

%
T & HP
50 HP

30 900

60 1800

Hz RPM

Motor Torque is constant to base speed

HP varies proportionally to speed

Pulse-Width-Modulated Inverter

AC to DC Rectifier

DC Filter

DC to AC Inverter AC Output

AC Input

DC Bus Caps

IGBTs

All PWM inverters (V/Hz, Vector & Sensorless Vector) share similar power circuit topologies.

AC is converted to DC, filtered, and inverted to variable frequency, variable voltage AC.

PWM Power Circuit:AC to DC Converter Section

AC to DC Rectifier

DC Filter

AC Input Input Reactor (option)

DC Bus Caps

+ -

DC Reactor

The AC input is rectified and filtered into fixed-voltage DC

Certain manufacturers units contain an integral DC reactor (choke)
as part of the DC filter.
Adding an external AC input reactor will yield similar benefits. Both reduce harmonics, smooth and lower peak current.

PWM Power Circuit:DC to AC Inverter Section

DC Filter

DC to AC Inverter

Vu-v AC Output

+ -

IGBTs

U
V W

M
Imotor

IGBT Firing Signals

An IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) is a high-speed power semiconductor switch. IGBTs are pulse-width modulated with a specific firing pattern, chopping the DC voltage into 3phase AC voltage of the proper frequency and voltage. The resulting motor current is near-sinusoidal, due to motor inductance.

Basic V/HZ Control Circuit: Input, Feedback and Control Signals

V
DC Bus current & voltage feedback Motor current & voltage feedback

IGBT Firing Signals

Operator Interface

Speed reference

PWM microprocessor controller

Flux Vector Control Elements: Input,Feedback, Control Signals

Encoder Feedback Motor current & voltage feedback

DC Bus voltage feedback

Manmachine Interface
Speed and / or Torque reference

IGBT Gating Signals

PWM microprocessor controller with Vector algorithm

Variable Torque Applications: Centrifugal Pumps & Fans

100%

Flow, Torque & Horsepower

80%

T = K x (RPM)2
HP = K x (RPM)3
Load varies with the square of the speed

50%

HP varies with the cube of the speed Ideally suited for AC Drives Energy savings benefits: only 50% power required at 80% flow AC Drives replace inefficient dampers, guide vanes and valves

Speed

80%

100%

4-Quadrant Operation of AC Motors on Inverter Power

Clockwise TORQUE

REVERSE REGENERATING
- RPM

FORWARD MOTORING
+ RPM

REVERSE MOTORING

FORWARD REGENERATING

CounterClockwise TORQUE

Conditions for Regenerating on an AC Motor

AC Motors regenerate when pulled faster than their sync speed at the applied frequency. At 60 Hz, if a motor is pulled faster than 1800 RPM*, the motor will behave as an induction generator.

Regeneration conditions: Overhauling loads Fast deceleration of high inertial loads Stopping on a timed-ramp Cyclic loads or eccentric shaft loading
PULL
ROTATION

* 1750 RPM base speed at 60 Hz

WEIGHT

AC Drive Regeneration

Energy Flow:

ONE - WAY

TWO - WAY

AC Input

DC Bus Caps

+ _

IGBTs

Current flows back into the DC bus, via the IGBT switching & back diodes. AC Drive front-end rectifier is unidirectional; energy cannot flow back into the AC line. Some returned energy is dissipated in losses in the capacitors, switches, and motor windings (10-15%). Excessive regeneration can cause problems, such as DC Bus Overvoltage.

Dynamic Braking on AC Drives

V DC Feedback

AC Input

DC Bus Caps

+ _

DBR

SIGNAL

DB is ACTIVE when: Motor has an overhauling load Fast decel of high-inertial load Stopping in ramp-to-rest mode

DYNAMIC BRAKING CONTROL

DB is NOT ACTIVE when: Decelerating a frictional load Stopping in coast-to-rest mode Drive is disabled or if power is removed

DYNAMIC BRAKING is typically an option for AC Drives

A seventh IGBT, integrally mounted, is modulated when DC Bus voltage is excessive. Resistor Grids (external on ratings 5 HP & above) dissipate the excess energy. DB is duty-cycle limited to a set number of stopping operations

Dynamic Braking on AC Drives: Application Considerations

DB is not failsafe: if the drive faults or power is removed, DB will not function. DB only operates when the drive is running: in coast-rest or stand-by, DB is inactive. DB should not be used in EMERGENCY STOPPING: the drive will continue on a timed ramp, producing torque the entire time. DB is suitable for intermittent operation only: other regenerative solutions exist for long-term overhauling loads

AC Drives on a Common DC Bus: Typical Connection Diagram

THERMAL- MAG BREAKER

INPUT LINE REACTOR

AC DRIVE

AC DRIVE

AC DRIVE

SEMICONDUCTOR FUSES INTERLOCKED DC CONTACTOR

DC DRIVE BASICS

A1

Armature
A2 F1 F2

Field

LINE INPUT

MOTOR OUTPUT

DC Drives convert AC line voltage into variable DC voltage with an SCR phase-controlled bridge rectifier, to power the DC motor ARMATURE. A separate field supply provides the motor with DC FIELD excitation.

Power Switches
The SCR: (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) a.k.a. - Thyristor
ANODE CATHODE

GATE
Extremely robust solid-state switch / 40+ year proven track record Key element in DC Drive power circuit Simple pulse gating turns on current flow
TRIGGER

Device has self-turn-off when reverse biased

Stud-mount, hockey-puck and encapsulated 2-, 4- and 6-pack types available in certain sizes and ratings.

Application Issues: AC Line Notching on DC Drives

AC Input

Commutation notches are caused by the transfer of current from one SCR to another.

V ph-ph

The notches can cause misfiring on drives common to the same power line.

Solution: Installation of a small (25-50 uH range), 3-phase reactor on each DC controller will prevent cross-talk and other related problems.

Elements of a DC Drive:Non-regenerative type

A1

AC Input

F1

F2
Field Control Signals

Tachometer Feedback (closed-loop)

A2
Motor voltage feedback

SCR Firing Signals

Line current feedback

AC MOTOR DRIVE 0.75 KW HEALTH 200 V v 1.3 LO CA REF L PROG L R JOG RUN F W RE D V STOP RESET RESET

Microprocessor controller

Speed or Torque Reference

S E E Q

Operator Interface

Elements of a DC Drive:Regenerative type

A1

AC Input

R
F1

R
Field Control Signals

F2 A2
Motor voltage feedback

Tachometer Feedback (closed-loop)

SCR Firing Signals

FWD/MOT REGEN/REV

Line current feedback

AC MOTOR DRIVE 0.75 KW HEALTH 200 V v 1.3 LO CA REF L PROG L R JOG RUN F W RE D V STOP RESET RESET

Speed or Torque Reference

S E E Q

Microprocessor controller

Operator Interface