01 General Communication

TMT 1243
Maritime Communications
General Communications
Overview
A communication system is made up of devices that employ
one of two communication methods (wireless or wired),
different types of equipment (portable radios, mobile radios,
base/fixed station radios, and repeaters), and various
accessories (speaker microphones, battery eliminators, and
carrying cases) and/or enhancements (encryption, digital
communications, security measures, and networking) to meet
the user needs.
01 Jan 2013 Lt Kdr Ir Hardy Azmir Anuar TLDM 2
Technologies
Wired:
hard-line system.
localised.
uses wires to operate over limited area.

Wireless:
uses radio frequencies (RF) to connect users.
capable of operating over a much larger geographical area.

Advantages of RF communication systems:
provide communications over large distances.
through some obstacles.
to an almost unlimited number of users.
Technologies
Range of the signal:
defined as the distance between the transmitter and the receiver at
which the amplitude of the signal received by the receiver is less than
the amplitude of the background noise.
may also be affected by interference from atmospheric disturbances,
such as electrical storms, and high-power RF sources (such as radar
equipment and broadcast equipment).
RF signals do not pass through water.

Subject to saturation by users
amount and quality of information able to be transferred over the
system.
Radio Frequency
Common radio messages (data and voice) are transmitted
over the RF band between 0.05 MHz and 900 MHz.

Cell phones, global positioning receivers and remote sensing,
transmit in the microwave band between 1 GHz and 20 GHz.

Conventional Radio System
User is assigned a discrete radio channel independent of
other user group channels.

Transmissions may occur with or without the assistance of a
repeater.

Communications without a repeater are considered to be
simplex communications used for a small coverage area.

Users equipped with radios programmed with same
frequency and CTCSS/DCS can communicate with one
another.
Trunked Radio Systems
Typically allocate large group of users to a few radio
frequency channel.

User is assigned a logical grouping (talkgroup) instead of
channel grouping.

Computer-controlled two-way radio system.

It selects the channel and monitors the repeater before
transmitting.
Types of Equipment
Portable radios:
small, lightweight, handheld, wireless communication units that
contain both a transmitter and a receiver, a self-contained
microphone and speaker, an attached power supply (typically a
rechargeable battery), and antenna.
have relatively low-powered transmitters.

Mobile Radios:
larger than portable radios and are designed to be mounted in a fixed
location inside a vehicle.
mobile radios connect to the vehicles power supply.
External antenna.
Medium-powered transmitter.
Types of Equipment
Base/Fixed Station Radios:
also contains a transmitter and a receiver.
powered by an external electrical system.
have the most powerful transmitters.
have the most sensitive receivers.

Repeaters:
specialized radio that contains both a receiver and a transmitter.
used to increase the effective communications coverage area.
repeaters receiver is tuned to the users transmitted frequency.
repeaters transmitter is tuned to the users received frequency.
incoming signal is rebroadcast back to the radio network usually with
higher power and from a better location.
Enhancements
Enhancements are those items or applications available to
the customer for modification of the communication system
for a specific purpose.
Encryption - RF radios may allow for the encryption of sensitive
communications for security purposes.
Digital Communications - radio massages is converted into binary code
using electronic or electromagnetic signals.
Security Measures - improved by the use of spread spectrum
techniques, voice inversion, digitizing of voice and data and etc.
Interoperability and Networking - process of connecting different
groups using different radio systems and communication technologies.

Transmission Methods
Radiotelegraph:
referred to as continuous wave (CW) telegraphy.
system of transmitting signals using a wave of RF energy.
separates a continuously transmitted wave into dots and dashes based
on the Morse code.
first means of radio communications military/commercial.
slow speed of transmission.
require experienced operators.
reliable.
Radiotelephone
one of the most useful military/commercial communications methods.
directness, convenience, and ease of operation.
possible to communicate around the world by radiotelephone.
short-range tactical communications allows commanders to
communicate directly with other ships.
operated on frequencies that are high enough to have line-of-sight
characteristics.
it reduces the chances of the enemy intercepting the message.

Teletypewriter
is an electromechanical typewriter that can be used to send and
receive typed messages from point to point and point to multipoint
over various types of communications channels.
mainly for high-speed automatic communications across ocean areas.
equipped with a keyboard similar to a typewriter.
when a key is pressed, a sequence of signal is transmitted.
at receiving station, the sequence of signal is translates into letters,
figures, and symbols automatically.
efficient and reliable for communications between ships and from
ship-to shore.
Common speed of operation is 100 WPM.

Facsimile
process used to transmit photographs, charts, and other graphic
information electronically.
image to be transmitted is scanned by a photoelectric cell
corresponding to the light and dark areas on the picture.
the signal is then reproduce by a recorder at receiving station.
suffer distortion from all of the common sources of interference.
picture quality will be downgraded by any noise bursts.
it is an important communications supplement.
handling certain types of graphic and pictorial intelligence.
Radio Frequency Band
Frequency Description Wavelength
30 GHZ - 300 GHZ extremely high frequency
(EHF)
1 cm - 1 mm
3 GHZ - 30 GHZ superhigh frequency (SHF) 10 cm - 1 cm
300 MHZ - 3 GHZ ultrahigh frequency (UHF) 1 m - 10 cm
30 MHZ - 300 MHZ very high frequency (VHF) 10 m - 1 m
3 MHZ - 30 MHZ high frequency (HF) 100 m - 10 m
300 KHZ - 3 MHZ medium frequency (MF) 1000 m - 100 m
30 KHZ - 300 KHZ low frequency (LF) 10 km - 1 km
3 KHZ - 30 KHZ very low frequency (VLF) 100 km - 10 km
300 HZ - 3 KHZ voice frequency 1000 km - 100 km
Up to 300 HZ extremely low frequency
(ELF)
> 1000 km
Extremely Low-Frequency Communications (Up to 300 HZ):
to send short "phonetic letter spelled out" (PLSO) messages from
surface to submarines.
has the ability to penetrate ocean depths to several hundred feet with
little signal loss.
Impractical due to large size of transmitters and antennas.

Very-Low-Frequency Communications (3 KHZ - 30 KHZ):
also known as the myriametre band
voice cannot be transmitted and only low data rate coded signals are
used.
used for a few radio navigation services, worldwide transmission of
standard frequency and time signals, and for secure military
communication with submarines.
as a backup to shortwave communications.

Low-Frequency Communications (30 KHZ - 300 KHZ):
also known as the kilometre band.
not so seriously affected by ionospheric condition as with HF.
this band allows long distance communication.
AM broadcasting, aircraft beacon, LORAN, and information and
weather systems.

Medium-Frequency Communications (300 KHZ - 3 MHZ):
also known as the hectometre band.
maritime distress and emergency frequency and AM broadcasting.
non-directional (radio) beacon (NDB) signals follow the curvature of
the earth.
lower MF band - long distance transmission over water.
upper MF band - short-haul communications (400 miles or less).

High-Frequency Communications (3 MHZ - 30 MHZ):
also known as the decameter band.
extensively used due to its variable nature of the propagation
medium.
long-distance communications depend upon refraction of radio waves
by layers of ionospehere.
economic and technical advantages of HF have led to increasing use of
the band and is approaching saturation.
HF general types of services includes point-to-point, ship-to-shore,
ground-to-air and fleet broadcast.
Very-High-Frequency and Above Communications:
not normally refracted by the atmosphere.
ground-wave range is minimal.
limits our use of this frequency spectrum to line of sight.
increased range through the use of tropospheric scatter techniques.
certain atmospheric can also cause the range to be extended.
capable of overcoming the shielding effects of hills and structures to
some degree.
free from atmospheric and man-made static.
the transmitting antenna is in a direct line with the receiving antenna
and not over the horizon.
VHF ideal for amphibious operations or marine band.
UHF well suited for tactical voice transmission.
SHF used for radar and satellite communications.
EHF used only in the experimental stage.
AM Broadcast Band
Designation Name Frequency
LW long wave 153 - 279 kHz
MW medium wave 531 - 1620 kHz
SW short wave 2310 - 25820 kHz
Microwave Letter Band Designations
Modes of Operation
Simplex:
the simplest method of electronic communication.
uses a single channel or frequency.
this type of communication is one-way.

Half duplex:
two-way communication.
only one party transmits at a time.
Same antenna and circuitry may be used for both transmission and
reception.

Full duplex:
communications take place simultaneously in both direction.
using two separate channels or frequencies.
Voice Signal
Data Signal
Carrier Signal
Sine Wave
Sine Wave
Modulation
Amplitude Modulation Concept
Encoding information onto a carrier signal by varying the
amplitude of the carrier signal
AM Spectrum
2
2
2
2(
)

the first term is the carrier
the second term, containing the difference, is the lower
sideband
the third term, containing the sum, is the upper sideband

Modulation Index & Bandwidth
measure of the amplitude variation surrounding an
unmodulated carrier
indicates how much the modulation varies around its
"original" level
=
2

bandwidth of the signal can be seen to be twice that of the
highest f
m
transmitted
= 2

Modulation Index
Amplitude Shift Keying (Digital)
AM Transmitter
AM Transmitter
Crystal Radio
Frequency Modulation
frequency of the carrier signal
FM Spectrum
(2
+ cos (2
)

Modulation Index & Bandwidth
equal to the peak deviation caused when the signal is
modulated by the frequency of the modulating signal

Bandwidth of the signal is given by
= 2
+1

If h << 1 the modulation is called narrowband FM, and its
bandwidth is approximately 2f
m
If h >> 1 the modulation is called wideband FM and its
bandwidth is approximately 2Af
While wideband FM uses more bandwidth, it can improve the
signal-to-noise ratio significantly

Modulation Index
Frequency Shift Keying
FM Transmitter
FM Receiver
Phase Modulation
phase of the carrier signal
(2
)

= = 2
+1

Phase Shift Keying
Behaviour Of Radio Waves
Reflection
when waves strike another medium
Refraction
another effect when waves strike another medium
Diffraction
how waves can be bent
In all cases absorption is always occuring
Reflection
When an electromagnetic wave encounters a change in or
different medium (as in air to water), some or all of the wave
may propagate into the new medium (transmitted portion)
and some may be reflected from it (reflected portion). In this
case, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
and is known as Fresnels Law.
Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
Incident Wave Reflected Wave
Reflection
Media boundaries with dissimilar propagation result in
reflection.

Specular reflection is reflected at
equal but opposite angle from
smooth surface.
Diffuse reflection results from waves
striking an irregular surface and
reflecting over a broad range of
angles
Reflection
The reflected wave will be 180 degrees out of phase with the
original wave of incident.
The only way to get reflected energy back to the source (as
need for radar to work) is to hit the material perpendicular to
the surface.
If the surface is not flat then reflected rays will not go in the
same direction.
Many other things besides targets can cause reflections (dust,
rain, snow, and water vapor).
Can get reflections off ionosphere and when there are
inversions in the atmosphere.
Refraction
When an electromagnetic wave enters a new medium, the
speed of propagation will change and as a direct result, the
incident wave will change its direction of propagation. The
incident wave will bend more towards the perpendicular
when entering a medium with higher Index of Refraction (n).
This phenomenon is known as Snells Law and can be
represented by the following: n
1
sinu
1
= n
2
sinu
2

Refraction
Incident wave passes through two transparent media in
which the velocity of light differs
Incident wave divides into a reflected wave and a refracted
wave Incident wave divides into a reflected wave and a
refracted wave
Although there are no clear boundaries of medium in air,
there are different densities. The result is that the energy ray
will bend toward the area of higher density.

Refraction
As the angle of incidence increases the angle of refraction
increases as well
The critical angle can be calculated from Snell's law by setting
the refraction angle equal to 90
For an incidence angle greater than uc there is no refracted
ray known as total internal reflection

No internal reflection when starting in a lower n because sin
s 1
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1
2
1
sin
n
n
c
u
Refraction
Refraction
Refraction
Diffraction
Wave bending around an object because of different speeds
of wavelet at medium interface. Can detect signals in spite of
LOS limitations.
Classic example of diffraction is waves around a break water.

island
not detected
detected
EM Signal Losses
Spreading - energy distributed over an increasingly larger
area. Energy per unit area proportional to 1/R
2
.
Absorption - energy dissipated into medium. Molecules of
medium absorb some of the energy as it passes through.
Scattering - energy bouncing off suspended particles within a
medium
Interference
When two or more waves meet, amplitudes add to produce a
new wave.
Can be described as either constructive or destructive
interference, depending on phase shift between waves.
Constructive phase difference between 0 and 120 or between 240
and 360 .
Destructive phase difference between 120 and 240 .

Interference
Wave Propagation
There is a relationship between distance and frequency
Propagation Modes
Ground Waves
Sky Waves
Space Waves
Tropospheric Scatter

Ground Wave
Very low frequencies (5-10Khz)
Vertical polarization
Waves travel along earths surface.
Very long wavelengths - unsuitable for ships & aircraft, but
used for sub coms
Shore-based installations (HF-DF)

Sky Wave
E-M energy refracts back towards the earths surface in upper
ionosphere layer.
E-M energy then reflects back toward upper layer again.
Frequencies used up to 550 KHz effectively
Wavelengths still too long for anything but comms by aircraft
and ships.
Space Wave
Higher frequency signals that penetrate the ionosphere and
travel through space.
Above 30 MHz, ionosphere will not refract E-M waves back
toward earth.
Energy tends to travel in straight line.
Tropospheric Scatter
Method of transmitting and receiving microwave radio signals
over considerable distances often up to 400 miles
Radio waves at particular frequencies are randomly scattered
as they pass through the upper layers of the troposphere
2 GHz are best suited - interacts well with the moist.

ITU Emission Code
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) uses an
internationally agreed system for classifying radio frequency
signals.
first symbol - type of modulation of the main carrier.
second symbol - nature of signal(s) modulating the main carrier.
third symbol - type of information to be transmitted.
fourth symbol - details of signal(s) (optional).
fifth symbol - nature of multiplexing (optional).

Type of Modulation
Type of Modulating Signal
Type of Transmitted Information
Details of Information
Multiplexing

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