Metal alloys

Introduction

Its appropriate to conclude the treatment of metallic materials by discussing some of the important engineering alloys in term of their compositions, properties, applications and fabrication techniques. Metals alloys by virtue of compositions are often grouped to two classes-ferrous and nonferrous. Ferrous alloys which iron is the principal constituent include steels and cast irons. Nonferrous which all the alloys that are not iron based.

Fabrication of metals

On occasion the suitability of material for an application is dictated by the ease of producing a desired shape and the cost involved. Metal fabrications techniques are the method by which metals and alloys are formed and manufactured into useful products. They are refining, alloying, and often heat treating process that produce alloys with the desired characteristics The method chosen depend on several factors such as properties of metal, size and shape of finished product and cost.

The deformation must be induced by external force or stress. The magnitude must be exceed the yield strength of the metals. Most metallic materials are amenable to the procedure, ductile and capable of some permanent deformation without cracking or fracturing. When deformation is achieved at temperature above which recrystalline occurs the terms is hot working. Cold working is done at room temperature or near room temperature.

Classification of metal fabrication techniques

Metal fabrication techniques

Forming operations

Casting

Miscellaneous

Forging

Rolling

Extrusion

Die

Sand

Investment

Powder metallurgy

Welding

Forging

Forging is the term for shaping metal by using localized compressive forces. Forging is manufacturing process where metal is pressed, pounded or squeezed under great pressure into high strength parts known as forgings. The process is normally (but not always) performed hot by preheating the metal to a desired temperature before it is worked. It is important to note that the forging process is entirely different from the casting (or foundry) process, as metal used to make forged parts is never melted and poured (as in the casting process). There are basically three methods (or processes) to make a forged part.

Impression Die Forging Cold Forging Open Die Forging Seamless Rolled Ring Forging

What kind of equipment is used to make forgings?

Although the styles and drive systems vary widely, a forging can be produced on any of the following pieces of equipment. Hammers with a driving force of up to 50,000 pounds, pound the metal into shape with controlled high pressure impact blows. Presses with a driving force of up to 50,000 tons, squeeze the metal into shape vertically with controlled high pressure. Upsetters are basically forging presses used horizontally for a forging process known as "upsetting". Ring Rollers turn a hollow round piece of metal under extreme pressure against a rotating roll, thereby squeezing out a one-piece ring (with no welding required).

Rolling
Flat rolling or Rolling is defined as the reduction of the cross-sectional area of the metal stock, or the general shaping of the metal products, through the use of the rotating rolls . It allows a high degree of closed-loop automation and very high speeds, and is thus capable of providing high-quality, close tolerance starting material for various secondary sheet metal working processes at a low cost.

Extrusion

The extrusion process is used most frequently to form plastic and aluminum parts or products. However, ceramics, heavier metals or alloys, and foods such as pasta, are also shaped and manufactured through the extrusion process. Essentially, as long as a material can be easily liquefied, it can be extruded. Basically, the extrusion process involves loading small pieces of raw material or stock into a hopper at one end of the extruder. In the case of the plastic extrusion process, this raw material is called pellets, and in the aluminum extrusion process, billets. The raw stock is fed from the hopper into the extruder, essentially a heated cylinder, where it is softened. A ram, usually a worm gear, forces the semi-liquid raw material through a smaller chamber, then through a shaped die. From the die, the extrusion, the string, tube, or rod of shaped stock, is cooled with water or air, along the run out table to harden. At the end of the run out table, the hardened product is cut, wound, shipped, or sent on to further refining.

Die casting

Die casting is the process of forcing molten metal under high pressure into mold cavities (which are machined into dies). Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, and tin based alloys, although ferrous metal die castings are possible. The die casting method is especially suited for applications where a large quantity of small to medium sized parts are needed with good detail, a fine surface quality and dimensional consistency.

Die cast parts are found in many places around the home. The polished, plated zinc die casting in this kitchen faucet illustrates one of the many finishes possible with die casting.

These connector housings are examples of the durable, highly accurate components that can be produced with todays modern die casting.

Sand casting

Sand casting is used to make large parts (typically Iron, but also Bronze, Brass, Aluminum). Molten metal is poured into a mold cavity formed out of sand (natural or synthetic). The processes of sand casting include patterns, sprues and runners, design considerations, and casting allowance.

Typical Components of a Two-part Sand Casting Mold

Investment casting

Investment casting is also known as the lost wax process. This process is one of the oldest manufacturing processes. The Egyptians used it in the time of the Pharaohs to make gold jewelry (hence the name Investment) some 5,000 years ago. Intricate shapes can be made with high accuracy. In addition, metals that are hard to machine or fabricate are good candidates for this process. It can be used to make parts that cannot be produced by normal manufacturing techniques, such as turbine blades that have complex shapes, or airplane parts that have to withstand high temperatures.

a
Inlet-outlet cover of a valve for a nuclear power station produced using investment casting

The investment shell for casting a turbocharger rotor

A view of the interior investment shows the smooth surface finish and high level of detail

The completed workpiece

Powder metallurgy

Powder metallurgy uses sintering process for making various parts out of metal powder. The metal powder is compacted by placing in a closed metal cavity (the die) under pressure. This compacted material is placed in an oven and sintered in a controlled atmosphere at high temperatures and the metal powders coalesce and form a solid. A second pressing operation, repressing, can be done prior to sintering to improve the compaction and the material properties.

Welding process

A weld occurs when pieces of metal are joined by causing the interface to melt and blend prior to solidifying as a uniform metal joint. This process may be caused by heat, pressure or a combination of both. When heat alone is used the process is called fusion welding. Pressure welding usually involves heating the surfaces to a plastic state and then forcing the metal together. The heating can be by electric current of by friction resulting from moving one surface relative to the other. The methods and equipment used for welding metal are also associated with cutting metal. There are a large number of welding and allied processes including the following.