Alloy

Alloys:
The presence of other elements in the metal can also change its properties, sometimes drastically. The arrangement and kind of bonding in metals permits the addition of other elements into the structure, forming mixtures of metals called alloys. Even if the added elements are nonmetals, alloys may still have metallic properties

Copper alloys were produced very early in our history. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was the first alloy known. It was easy to produce by simply adding tin to molten copper. Tools and weapons made of this alloy were stronger than pure copper ones. Adding zinc to copper produces another alloy, brass. Although brass is more difficult to produce than bronze, it also was known in ancient times.

Typical composition of some alloys

Alloy Brass................... Bronze................. Pewter................. Solder.................. Alnico.................. Cast iron............... Steel.................... Composition Copper, Zinc Copper, Zinc, Tin Tin, Copper, Bismuth, Antimony Lead, Tin Aluminum, Nickel, Cobalt, Iron Iron, Carbon, Manganese, Silicon Iron, Carbon (plus small amounts of alloying elements) Stainless Steel........ Iron, Chromium, Nickel

Alloys are mixtures and their percentage composition can vary. This is useful, because the properties of alloys can be manipulated by varying composition. For example, electricians need a solder with different properties than the one used by plumbers. Electrical solder hardens very quickly producing an almost immediate connection. This would not be practical for plumbers who need some time to set the joint. Electrical solder contains about 60% tin, whereas plumber's solder contains about 30%.

Pewter originally contained lead, and since pewter was used for plates and goblets, it probably was a source of lead poisoning. Pewter made today is lead-free. Increased knowledge of the properties of metals also leads to new alloys. Some brasses form shape memory alloys which can be bent and will return to their original shape when gently heated. Zinc alloys, used as a coating on steel, slow corrosion (galvanized steel). Cadmium alloys find extensive use in solar cells. The ability of cupronickel to resist the build-up of deposits makes it useful for cages in fish farming.

Iron and Steel:

Carbon steels vary in the percentage of carbon they contain. The amount of carbon affects the properties of the steel and its suitability for specific uses. Steels rarely contain more than 1% carbon. Structural steel contains about 0.1-0.2% carbon by weight; this makes it slightly more ductile and less apt to break during earthquakes. Steel used for tools is about 0.5-1 % carbon, making it harder and more wear resistant.

Cast iron is between 2.5 and 4% carbon and finds use in low cost applications where its brittleness is not a problem. Surprisingly, pure iron is extremely soft and is rarely used. Increasing the amount of carbon tends to increase the hardness of the metal as shown by the following graph. In slowly cooled steels, carbon increases the amount of hard Fe3C; in quenched steels, it also increases the hardness and strength of the material.

Hardness of steel as a function of % carbon.

H a r d n e s s Paper Clip (0.1%) % Carbon Bobby Pin (0.6%)

Bobby pins and paper clips are processed in much the same way but contain different amounts of carbon. Bobby pins and paper clips are formed from cold worked steel wire. The paper clip, containing little carbon, is mostly pure Fe with some Fe3C particles. The bobby pin has more carbon and thus contains a larger amount of Fe3C which makes it much harder and stronger.

BCC iron showing the location of interstitial carbon atoms

The properties of steel can be tailored for special uses by the addition of other metals to the alloy. Titanium, vanadium, molybdenum and manganese are among the metals added to these specialty steels. Stainless steel contains a minimum of 12% chromium, which stops further oxidation by forming a protective oxide on the surface.