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Neurobiologists and other investigators understand that humans and animals operate similarly when processing information.
Note the similarities in the above brain regions, which are all engaged in information processing.
Neural Communication
The bodys information system is built from billions of interconnected cells called neurons, a nerve cell which is the basic building block of the nervous system.
Neuron
A nerve cell, or a neuron, consists of many different parts.
Parts of a Neuron
Cell Body: Life support center of the neuron. Dendrites: Branching extensions at the cell body. Receive messages from other neurons. Axon: Long single extension of a neuron, covered with myelin [MY-uh-lin] sheath to insulate and speed up messages through neurons. Terminal Branches of axon: Branched endings of an axon that transmit messages to other neurons.
Fig. 3-2, p. 75
Action Potential
A neural impulse. A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon and is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axons membrane.
Potential = Voltage (Action potential refers to the impulse during action/Resting Potential refers to the impulse during rest)
Threshold
Threshold: Each neuron receives excitatory (like pushing the accelerator) and inhibitory (like pressing the brake) signals from many neurons. When the excitatory signals minus the inhibitory signals exceed a minimum intensity (threshold) the neuron fires an action potential.
Synapse
Synapse: a junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. This tiny gap is called the synaptic gap or cleft.
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters (chemicals) released from the sending neuron travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing it to generate an action potential.
Reuptake
Neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed into the sending neurons through the process of reuptake. This process applies the brakes on neurotransmitter action.
Fig. 3-4, p. 78
Reuptake Inhibitors
Serotonin: Regulation of mood, sleep, muscle contraction and some cognitive functions including memory and learning Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRI): treat depression and anxiety by preventing the reuptake of serotonin. Common SSRIs: Paxil, Zoloft, Prozac
From Mapping the Mind, Rita Carter, 1989 University of California Press
Dopamine Pathways
Dopamine pathways are involved with diseases such as schizophrenia and Parkinsons disease.
From Mapping the Mind, Rita Carter, 1989 University of California Press
Parkinsons Disease
Different areas of the brain must communicate in order to produce smooth and coordinated muscle movements. Dopamine is a key neurotransmitter involved in this communication. Parkinsons Disease is caused by a deterioration of brain neurons that produce dopamine (it is still unknown why this occurs). A lack of dopamine results in abnormal nerve functioning, causing a loss in the ability to control body movements.
Schizophrenia
Symptoms consist of hallucinations, delusions and irrational behavior. Although not the sole cause of schizophrenia, dopamine unbalance is consistently seen found in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia may result from biopsychosocial factors. Some evidence supports a genetic predisposition. Drugs that prevent dopamine from binding to receptors reduce the symptoms of schizophrenia.
Neurotransmitters
Agonists
Endorphin Agonists
Endorphins are chemicals produced by the body during times of physical or psychological stress. Relieve pain, relaxation, feeling of well being
Antagonists
Epinephrine in the blood reaches -receptors (such as those in the heart) - prepares the body for an emergency.
Increases heart rate, elevates blood sugar, dilates pupils, etc. boosts the supply of oxygen and glucose to brain and muscles suppresses non-emergency bodily functions (ie: digestion)
In people with hypertension this response leads to complications such as blood vessel damage, stroke, heart attack, etc.
Nervous System
Interconnected neurons form networks in the brain. Theses networks are complex and modify with growth and experience.
The Nerves
Nerves consist of neural cables containing many axons. They are part of the peripheral nervous system and connect muscles, glands, and sense organs to the central nervous system.
Fig. 3-8, p. 83
Simple Reflex
Hormones
Hormones: chemicals synthesized by the endocrine glands secreted in the bloodstream affect the brain and many other tissues of the body.
Brain Glands Hormones
Example: epinephrine (adrenaline) increases heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and feelings of excitement during emergency situations.
Example: Oxytocin is released by the posterior pituitary, carried through the bloodstream to all the tissues in the body. It acts on only two tissues, the breasts and uterus in the female. It acts only under certain conditions, such as: Oxytocin causes uterine contractions at the end of pregnancy. Oxytocin causes breast tissue to eject milk only if the female has recently given birth and is nursing.
Pituitary Gland
Is called the master gland. The anterior pituitary lobe releases hormones that regulate other glands. The posterior lobe regulates water and salt balance.
Pituitary Gland
Is called the master gland.
anterior pituitary lobe releases hormones that regulate organs and other glands.
Adrenal Glands
Adrenal glands consist of the adrenal medulla and the cortex. The medulla secretes hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) during stressful and emotional situations, while the adrenal cortex regulates salt and carbohydrate metabolism.
Adrenal Glands
The adrenal cortex regulates salt and carbohydrate metabolism.
The medulla secretes hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) during stressful and emotional situations.
Gonads
Sex glands are located in different places in men and women. They regulate bodily development and maintain reproductive organs in adults.
The Brain
Techniques to Study the Brain
A brain lesion experimentally destroys brain tissue to study animal behaviors after such destruction.
Remember, the hippocampus was removed from rats at various times after learning a maze.
Hubel (1990)
Clinical Observation
Clinical observations have shed light on a number of brain disorders. Alterations in brain morphology due to neurological and psychiatric diseases are now being catalogued.
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
An amplified recording of the electrical waves sweeping across the brains surface, measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
CT scan produces much more detailed image than x-ray of bone and soft tissue
The Brain
The Brain
Brain stem
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Brain Stem
Brainstem
Thalamus
The Thalamus [THAL-uhmuss] is the brains sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
To medulla 1.
2.
3. 4. To cerebellum
Pons
The Pons plays a role in muscle coordination.
Pons
Reticular Formation
Reticular Formation is a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.
Damage to this causes a disorder called narcolepsy in which a person falls asleep suddenly during the daytime and cannot resist the sleep.
Medulla
The Medulla [muhDUL-uh] is the base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing.
Cerebellum
The little brain attached to the rear of the brainstem. It helps coordinate voluntary movements and balance. Implicit (procedural) memory.
Amygdala
The Amygdala [ah-MIGdah-la] consists of two lima bean-sized neural clusters linked to the emotions of fear and anger.
Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus lies below (hypo) the thalamus. Directs maintenance activities like eating, drinking, body temperature, and control of emotions. It stimulates or inhibits pituitary gland other endocrine glands
Reward Center
Rats cross an electrified grid for self-stimulation when electrodes are placed in the reward (hypothalamus) center (top picture). When the limbic system is manipulated, a rat will navigate fields or climb up a tree (bottom picture).
Visual Function
Visual Function
Notice the visual cortex is located in the occipital lobe.
The functional MRI scan shows the visual cortex is active as the subject looks at faces.
Courtesy of V.P. Clark, K. Keill, J. Ma. Maisog, S. Courtney, L.G. Ungerleider, and J.V. Haxby, National Institute of Mental Health
Auditory Function
The auditory cortex contains distinct subregions that are important for decoding complex sound.
5. The motor cortex is involved in sensorymotor feedback, in controlling movements needed to produce music using an instrument.
3 2. information travels through the brainstem and midbrain to the 1 auditory cortex. 2 4
1. Sound waves enter ear, and are turned into neural impulses by the inner ear
3. information from the auditory cortex interacts with many other brain areas, especially the frontal lobe, for memory formation and interpretation.
Auditory Hallucinations
The functional MRI scan shows the auditory cortex is active in patients who hallucinate.
Association Areas
More intelligent animals have increased uncommitted or association areas of the cortex.
Language
Aphasia is an impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Brocas area (impaired speaking) or to Wernickes area (impaired understanding).
Martin M. Rother
Try This!
Try drawing one shape with your left hand and one with your right hand, simultaneously.
BBC