DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Objectives
E Describe the Digestive System
E Discover the function of the Digestive
System
E Identify the types of Digestive System
E Be acquainted with the stages of
digestion
E Identify and locate the organs of the
Digestive System
E Digestive System Disorders
Digestive System
E concerned with the process of ingestion, digestion, absorption, and
egestion of food

Function of the Digestive System:
Primary function:


To break down the food we eat into smaller parts
so the body can use them to build and nourish cells
and provide energy


Types of Digestive Systems
E Incomplete Digestive System
exhibited by flatworms where there is only a single opening for
ingestion of food and excretion of waste materials
the anus is absent
common in invertebrates

E Complete Digestive System
the presence of an opening for food intake and another opening for
eliminating wastes
present in all vertebrates

Stages of Digestion
O Mechanical Digestion
food undergoes physical change by tearing, grinding, and chewing
in humans, it involves the use of the front side of the teeth for
cutting and the back side of the teeth for grinding




Mouth Esophagus Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine
Rectum Anus





Stages of Digestion
O Chemical Digestion
food is broken down into simpler molecules in the presence of
enzymes


Parts of the Human Digestive
System
Its Functions in the process of Digestion
Parts of the Digestive System:
Part Description
Teeth

The teeth are located inside the mouth - which is also known
as the "buccal cavity".
Humans have two sets of teeth, the first during childhood and
the second set (ideally) throughout adult life. The lower row of
teeth are inset into the mandible (lower jaw bone) and the
upper row of teeth are inset into the maxillae (upper jaw
bones).

Tongue

The tongue is located at the floor of the mouth between the
two lateral portions of the mandible (lower-jaw). The base of
the tongue is connected to the midline of the floor of the
mouth by a fold of membrane called the lingual frenulum and
is controlled by several muscles including the hyoglossus.

Parts of the Digestive System:
Part Description
Salivary Glands

The salivary glands are located in the lower part of the
face and secret into the buccal cavity.
There are 3 main salivary glands:
(1) The parotid gland is the largest salivary gland and is
located on the side of the face immediately below and
anterior to the external ear.
(2) The submaxillary gland is located below the jaw
towards the front of the neck/lower-jaw.
(3) The sublingual gland is the smallest salivary gland
and is located below the mucous membrane of the floor
of the mouth. It is narrow and has a flatten shape,
resembling an almond.

Epiglottis

The epiglottis is the flap of cartilage located at the back
of the throat behind the tongue, and in front of the larynx.

Parts of the Digestive System:
Part Description
Trachea The trachea is not part of the digestive system but is included on
the above diagram to clarify the action of the epiglottis, which
acts as a "switch" - directing foodstuffs / air from the buccal
cavity into either the oesophagus (leading to the stomach) or the
trachea (leading to the lungs).

Oesophagus The oesophagus is a muscular canal that extends from the throat
at the back of the mouth to the stomach.

Diaphragm The diaphragm is a thin musculo-fibrous septum that is not part
of the digestive system but is included above because it separates
the thorax (containing e.g. the lungs) from the abdomen (which
contains much of the digestive system, as shown). The diaphragm
divides these two bodily cavities, forming the floor of the thorax
and the roof of the abdomen.
Parts of the Digestive System:
Part Description
Stomach The stomach is located between the lower end
("termination") of the oesophagus and the start
of thesmall intestines - at which the pylonic
sphincter of the stomach releases contents of
the stomach into the duodenum (the first and
upper-most part of the small intestines).
Liver The liver is located in the upper right-side of the
abdominal cavity (i.e. immediately below the
diaphragm). It is divided into two lobes, the left-
lobe being smaller than the right-lobe.
Note that the diagram above shows the liver on
the left-hand-side because it is a diagram of
theanterior view of the digestive system - that is
looking at the front of a person, hence the left-
hand-side of the diagram represents the right-
hand-side of the body.
Parts of the Digestive System:
Part Description
Gall Bladder The gall bladder is an approx. cone-shapes musculo-membranous
sac located in a fossa under the right-lobe of the liver.
Pancreas The pancreas is located behind the stomach and partly within the
curve of the duodenum.

Note that the diagram above appears to show the pancreas in
front of the stomach (given that the diagram above is an anterior
view of the digestive system) and does not explicitly show the
pancreas lying partly within the curve of the duodenum.
Unfortunately this is unavoidable when including all of the main
digestive organs in this diagram because an ordinary anterior
view would not include anythingbehind something else included in
the same view. We have therefore included the pancreas
(represented in a pale colour) apparently in front of the stomach -
with this note in clarification.


Parts of the Digestive System:
Part Description
Small Intestines The small intestines are located in the lower part of the
abdomen, within the large membrane known as the
peritoneum (which has 2 layers separated by a small
amount of liquid, enabling the organs contained within it to
move freely over and around each other). The small
intestines progress from thepyloric sphincter, through with
they receive material from the stomach, into the first of
three parts - called the duodenum. The next two parts of
the small intestines are the jejunum and the ileum.

Parts of the Digestive System:
Part Description
Large Intestines
The large intestines are located in the lower part of the abdomen, within
the large membrane known as the peritoneum (which has 2 layers
separated by a small amount of liquid, enabling the organs contained
within it to move freely over and around each other). The large intestines
begin at the bottom of the abdomen, where material is received from
the ileum, i.e. the final part of the small intestines. In common with the
small intestines, the large intestines are also described in three parts:

(1) The cecum is the first part of the large intestine and so receives material
from the ileum.
(2) The second part of the large intestines is the colon, which initially rises
upwards within the abdomen (ascending colon), then moves across the
body beneath the liver and stomach (transverse colon), then finally passes
downwards back to the lower abdomen (descending colon).
(3) The third and final part of the large intestines is the rectum - also
described separately - which is located in the approx. centre of the lower
abdomen.

Parts of the Digestive System:
Part Description
Appendix The appendix extends from the cecum, forming a narrow tube that
may pass in any of several directions, incl. e.g. upwards behind the
cecum, to the left behind the ileum, or downwards and inwards. The
appendix varies in length from approx 25mm to 220mm (in adults),
typical length approx. 75mm. The appendix is held in position by an
approx. triangular fold of peritoneum.

Rectum The rectum is the terminal (i.e. end) part of the large intestine and extends
from the sigmoid flexure to the anal orifice. It is approx. 12-20cm or 5-8
inches long in total - estimates in textbooks vary - and may be described in
three parts, according to the curve formed by this final part of the large
intestine. The three parts have approx. proportions 10cm, 7.5cm, and 2.5 -
4cm (the last part being slightly longer in men than in women), or values in
similar proportions for recta of slightly different total length.
The rectum ends at the anus, from which indigestible matter is released
from the body during defecation.

Parts of the Digestive System:
Part Description
Anus The anus is located at the base of the abdomen.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
DISORDERS
Common and Inflammatory
Digestive system disorders happen when there is a faulty function during the
process of digestion which prevents some part of the digestive system from
working as it should do. There are a wide number of common digestive system
disorders.

Common Digestive System Disorders
Disorder Description
Colon and Rectal Cancer

Colon and Rectal cancer is also referred to as colorectal
cancer. This type of cancer is a malignant cell that is found in
the colon or rectum region of the body. The large intestine is
made up of the colon and the rectum. Colon and rectal cancers
share so many common features that they are referred to as
the same cancer which is how the name colorectal cancer
came about.
Colorectal cancer is the second leading cause of death by
cancer in the U.S.A. The number of new cases of colorectal
cancer has decreased because in large part, the
sigmoidoscopic screening and polyp removal procedures
initiated by the medical community.

Common Digestive System Disorders
Disorder Description
Stomach Cancer

Stomach cancer is also called, gastric cancer. This
cancer affected approximately 21,700 Americans during
2001. The majority of those individuals were in their 60s
and 70s. The risk factors for developing stomach cancer
are Helicobacter pylori infection and a diet that consists
of the following: eating large amounts of smoked foods,
salted fish and meat, foods that are high in starch and
low in fiber, pickled vegetables, and foods and
beverages that contain nitrates and nitrites.

Diarrhea

Diarrhea is watery stool, or an increased frequency in
stool, or both as compared to the normal amount of
stool passed by the individual. Diarrhea can be short-
term or it can be related to a bacterial or viral infection,
or it can be long-term which is usually related to a
functional disorder or intestinal disease

Common Digestive System Disorders
Disorder Description
Diverticular Disease

This disease occurs in small pouches that bulge out in
the colon. It is an inflammation or infection in the
pouches.
Gas in the Digestive Tract
You get gas in your digestive tract by swallowing air or
during the breakdown process of certain foods by the
bacteria that is present in the colon. Everyone has gas.
It can be uncomfortable and certainly embarrassing to
pass the gas. The average person produces 1 to 3 pints
of gas a day and pass gas through their rectums about
14 times each day.

Heartburn

Heartburn is what most of us get from time to time.
Chronic heartburn is a digestive disorder called
gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). GERD is
caused by gastric acid that flows from the stomach and
into the esophagus.

Common Digestive System Disorders
Disorder Description
Hepatitis

This is an inflammation of the liver that can result in liver cell
damage. There are two types of hepatitis acute and chronic
and six main types of the hepatitis virus.

Inflammatory Bowel Diseases
There are several different diseases that fall under this category all of which
require a doctor for treatment. Ulcerative colitis and Crohns disease are two of
these diseases
Disorder Description
Irritable Bowel
Syndrome

Irritable bowel syndrome more commonly referred to
as IBS is an intestinal disorder that causes cramping,
gassiness, bloating and changes in the bowel habits of
the individual with the disorder.

Lactose Intolerance

People with lactose intolerance lack an enzyme that is called
lactase. This enzyme is needed by the body to digest lactose.
Lactose is a sugar found in milk products. Adults and children
are affected by this intolerance. Digestive diseases or injuries
to the small intestine cause this intolerance. Individuals can
experience different symptoms but the common ones are:
cramping, bloating, gas, diarrhea, and nausea. The symptoms
will worsen when larger portions of milk products are
consumed.

Inflammatory Bowel Diseases
Disorder Description
Stomach and Duodenal
Ulcers
Ulcers are open sores or lesions. They are found in the
skin or mucous membranes of areas of the body. A
stomach ulcer is called a gastric ulcer and an ulcer in
the duodenum is called a duodenal ulcer. Lifestyle,
stress and diet used to be thought to cause ulcers.
These factors may have a role in ulcer formation;
however they are not the main cause of them.
Scientists now know that ulcers are caused by
hydrochloric acid and pepsin that are contained in our
stomach and duodenal parts of our digestive system
and that these acids contribute to ulcer formation.

Lets review!
OThe Digestive System is concerned with the ingestion, digestion,
absorption and egestion of food.
O The primary function of the Digestive System is to break down the
food we eat into smaller parts so the body can use them to build
and nourish cells and provide energy.
O The two types of Digestive System are: (1) Incomplete Digestive
system, where there is only a single opening for ingestion of food and
excretion of waste materials; (2) Complete Digestive System,
where the is an opening for food intake and another for
eliminating wastes
O The stages of digestion are: (1) Mechanical Digestion, where food
undergoes physical change by tearing, grinding, and
chewing; (2) Chemical Digestion, where food is broken down into
simpler molecules in the presence of enzymes.
O The process of digestion starts from the Mouth Esophagus
Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine Rectum
Anus.

UP NEXT!
THE URINARY SYSTEM
Objectives
E Describe the Urinary System

E Note the function of the Urinary
System

E Identify and locate the organs
of the Urinary System

E Recognize the different Urinary
Diseases
E also known as Excretory System of the human body
E the system of production, storage and elimination of
urine.
E In humans, it includes two kidneys, two ureters, the
bladder and the urethra
E It works with other organs such as the lungs, skin,
and the intestines in keeping chemicals and water
balanced inside the body

Urinary System
Function of the Urinary System:
The formation and elimination of urine.

How is urine formed?

Urine is formed by the kidneys in 3 steps:
1. Glomerular Filtration
2. Tubular reabsorption
3. Tubular secretion



Function of the Urinary System:
Osmoregulation
Kidneys are important osmoregulatory organs of
the human body.
They maintain salt and water balance of the
body.
If the concentration of salt or water is increased
above normal, kidney will excrete and the excess
amount.
If the concentration is decreased, kidneys will
reduce the loss of water and salts in urine.


Function of the Urinary System:
Acid-Base Balance
Kidneys are important regulators of pH of body
fluids.
Kidneys keep the pH balanced within a very
small range and provide an optimum environment for
all processes of life.
Parts of the Urinary System
and its functions
Parts of the Urinary System:
E Kidneys

two bean-shaped organs about the size of a clenched fist
located below the rib cage, near the middle of the back

Major functions:

E Removal of extra water and waste products from the blood in the
form of urine.
E Keeping a stable balance of salts and other substances in the
body.

E Releasing hormones that help maintain the normal number of red
blood cells and regulate blood pressure.

Parts of the Urinary System:
E Ureters
The two ureters, about 8 to 10 inches long, are narrow tubes that carry
urine from the kidneys to the bladder
Constant tightening and relaxing of muscles in the ureter wall forces
urine downward away from the kidneys.
These muscles help to maintain a one-way flow of urine from the
kidneys to the bladder.
If urine is allowed to stand still, or to flow back into the kidneys, a
kidney infection may develop.

Parts of the Urinary System:
E Bladder
also called the urinary bladder
a balloon-shaped, hollow, muscular organ inside the pelvis (hip
bones)
it is held in place by ligaments to other organs and the pelvic bones
it stores urine until it is released when you urinate

As urine flows into the bladder, it becomes larger and the shape
becomes more rounded or spherical. When it is empty, its size becomes
smaller. Small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the
ureters about every 10 or 15 seconds.

A normal adult bladder can store up to 2 cups of urine for as long as 2
to 5 hours.

Parts of the Urinary System:
E Sphincter Muscles
are two circular muscles around the opening of the bladder into the
urethra
help keep urine from leaking into the urethra


E Urethra
the tube that allows urine to pass outside the body
the male and female urethra are different in some ways in females,
the urethra is much shorter than in males
in addition to urine, the male urethra is also where semen passes
through

E Nerves in the bladder
inform a persion when it is time to urinate, or empty the bladder




What causes the feeling of need or
urge to urinate?
The urge to urinate is caused by urine filling your bladder.

Initially, as your bladder first fills with urine, you may notice a feeling that you need to
urinate. The feeling becomes stronger as your bladder continues to fill and reaches its
limit.

When your bladder is full, the nerves from your bladder send a message to your brain
that your bladder is full. At that point, your urge to empty your bladder intensifies.

When it is time to urinate, your brain signals your bladder muscles to tighten,
squeezing urine out of the bladder. At the same time, your brain signals the sphincter
muscles to relax.

As these muscles relax, urine exits your bladder through your urethra. Normal
urination occurs when all of the signals occur in the correct order.

The urge to urinate may be controlled for some time. But when the bladder has
reached its maximum limit, a person may not be able to control the passage of urine.

Urinary Diseases
Urinary Diseases
E Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
a condition in which the prostate gland is enlarged, making urination
difficult for men with this disease

E Bladder Cancer
the result of uncontrolled, abnormal cell growth within the bladder.
According to the American Cancer Society, there are three major
types of bladder cancer: transitional cell carcinoma, squamous cell
carcinoma and adenocarcinoma. Of these, the most common is
transitional cell carcinoma, which is also called urothelial carcinoma.


E Cystocele (Fallen Bladder)
a disease affecting females in which the wall between the bladder
and vagina becomes weak, allowing the bladder to fall into the vagina.



Urinary Diseases
E Hematuria (Blood in the Urine)

the presence of red blood cells in urine. Though the blood might not
be visible to patients with this disease, a doctor will be able to see the
red blood cells under a microscope.

E Interstitial Cystitis

described by the Interstitial Cystitis Association as chronic and often
painful inflammation of the bladder. This disease is also referred to as
Painful Bladder Syndrome or Frequency-Urgency-Dysuria Syndrome.

E Kidney Stone

a term used to describe a solid piece of material---most commonly
made up of calcium from the urine--that forms in one or both of the
kidneys. These can cause harmful and painful blockages that require
the stone(s) to be broken into pieces by lasers for easier passage.



Urinary Diseases
E Neurogenic Bladder

caused by the malfunction of nerve signaling in the muscles that
control the bladder. When these nerves fail to transmit messages
properly to the brain, an individual may lose the ability to urinate
normally.

E Prostate cancer

the result of uncontrolled, abnormal cell growth within the prostate
gland. It is highly curable in the early stages, so men should be
checked routinely.

E Prostatitis

a condition that results in inflammation of the prostate gland. Men with
prostatitis may find it difficult or painful to urinate, and can also
experience pain in the back or genital area.


Urinary Diseases
E Proteinuria

a term used to describe the presence of protein in the urine at levels
that are deemed abnormal. Urine with a high concentration of protein
may be indicative of more complicated kidney problems.

E Renal (Kidney) Failure

occurs when the kidneys malfunction, preventing the normal removal
of waste from the body. There are three major diseases that can lead
to renal failure: Acute renal failure, chronic kidney disease and end-
stage renal disease.

E Urinary Incontinence

a condition that results in the involuntary loss of bladder control. This
condition can be remedied through surgical procedures, and
sometimes by exercising the muscles of the pelvic floor.

Lets review!
OThe Urinary System is the system of production, storage and
elimination of urine.
O The Urinary System functions in the formation and elimination of
urine, in osmoregulation, and in keeping an acid-base
balance.
OThe parts of the Urinary System are Kidneys,Ureters, Bladder,
Sphincter Muscles and the Urethra.