Chapter 1.

Introduction: Matter and Measurements

Outline 1. Matter and properties 2. Classification of matter 3. Elements and periodic Table 4. Measurements and significant figures

Reference 1. Chemistry: An Atoms First Approach, S. S. Zumdahl, S. A. Zumdahl, International Ed. 2012, Chapter R.
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1. Matter and properties

Chemistry is a science that studies matter and its changes. Matter is anything that has mass and also occupies volume.
For example: Air, Water, Trees, Grass, Building

Properties of matter
To distinguish between samples of matter, we compare their properties. Property: any characteristic that can be used to describe or identify matter. Two categories of properties:
Physical properties Chemical properties

Physical Properties
Physical properties:
Describe physical characteristics or behavior. Such properties can be observed without changing the chemical composition of a substance.
Examples: Color Mass Odor Melting point Boiling point

Physical Properties of Matter

Physical Properties can be intensive or extensive.
An intensive property is a property that does not depend on the system size or the amount of material in the system. e.g. density, color, temperature An extensive property is a property is directly proportional to the amount of material in the system. e.g. mass, volume.
mass, volume

density, color

Chemical Properties
Chemical properties:
- Describe how a substance reacts with other type(s) of matter. - A chemical property is the ability (or inability) of a substance to undergo a change in composition under stated conditions.
e.g. Rust (corrosion) occurs when a bicycle is left out in the rain due to the chemical combination of oxygen with iron to give the new substance iron oxide. Corrosiveness is therefore a chemical properties of iron.
4 Fe (s) + 3 O2 (g) 2 Fe2O3 (s)

Physical and Chemical Changes

Chemistry is a science that studies matter and its changes.
Physical change Chemical change

Physical Changes
Physical changes are changes in the form of a substance, but its chemical composition is unchanged. No breaking of chemical bonds.
Examples: Melting of water Freezing of water Liquid water and ice (solid water) are certainly different in many ways, but both are made up of H2O molecules.
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Chemical Changes
Chemical changes occur when the chemical composition of a substance is changed. Breaking of bonds and rearrangement of atoms In a chemical change (or chemical reaction), matters are converted to new kinds with different compositions.
Examples:

As wood burns, it turns into a pile of ashes and gases.

Rust occurs when a bicycle is left out in the rain due to the combination of 9 oxygen with iron to give iron oxide.

2. Classification of Matter
According to their physical states, matter can be classified as

(a) solid (b) liquid (c) gas

Definite shape and volume; Rigid

Definite volume but no definite shape; Takes the shape of its container.

No definite volume or shape; Takes the shape and volume 10 of its container.

Classification of Matter
Matter can also be classified according to their compositions:

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Classification of Matter
Matter can also be classified according to their composition:

Substances: Pure matters that have definite fixed compositions which do not vary from sample to sample. e.g. gold, water.

Mixtures: made up of two or more substances. e.g. a sugar solution, orange juice

water

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sugar solution

Distinguishing Between Substance and Mixture

A substance is a kind of matter that cannot be separated into other kinds of matter by any physical process.

A mixture can be separated into its components by appropriate physical means (e.g. filtration, distillation and chromatography, etc).
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Types of Substances

An element is a substance made up of the same type of atoms, and cannot be decomposed into simpler substances. [e.g., gold (Au), oxygen (O2)]

A compound is a substance made of two or more elements chemically combined (e.g. water, NaCl).
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Types of Mixtures

Sugar solution components uniformly mixed

Orange juice components not uniformly mixed

Homogeneous mixtures are uniform in composition and properties throughout a given sample (but variable from one sample to another). e.g. A sugar solution is uniformly sweet throughout a given sample, but the sweetness of different sugar solution samples may be different depending on the concentration of sugar in the solutions.

In heterogeneous mixtures such as orange juice, the components separate into distinct regions. The solid are different from liquid.

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Summary, classification of matter

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Exercises
1. Which of the following is a physical property?
a) Flammability b) Toxicity c) Corrosiveness d) Temperature e) Explosiveness

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Exercises
1. Which of the following is a physical property?
a) Flammability b) Toxicity c) Corrosiveness d) Temperature e) Explosiveness

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Exercises
2. Vanillin contains 63.15% C, 5.30% H, and 31.55% O

whether it is extracted from vanilla beans, synthesized chemically from clove oils, or extracted from wood pulp wastes. Vanillin is most likely to be: a) a solution of C in H and O b) a heterogeous mixture of elements c) a compound of C, H, and O d) a homogenous mixture of elements

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Exercises
2. Vanillin contains 63.15% C, 5.30% H, and 31.55% O

whether it is extracted from vanilla beans, synthesized chemically from clove oils, or extracted from wood pulp wastes. Vanillin is most likely to be: a) a solution of C in H and O b) a heterogeous mixture of elements c) a compound of C, H, and O d) a homogenous mixture of elements

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Exercises
3. The following are properties for sucrose (table sugar).
Indicate which are physical properties and which are chemical properties.
a. white color
b. turns to a black substance when mixed with sulfuric acid c. solid phase at room temperature d. dissolves in water e. a sugar solution forms crystals when the water evaporates away f. sugar cubes do not conduct an electrical current g. undergoes a rapid reaction with alcohol and hydrochloric acid

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Exercises
3. The following are properties for sucrose (table sugar).
Indicate which are physical properties and which are chemical properties.
a. white color (Phys.)
b. turns to a black substance when mixed with sulfuric acid (Chem.)

c. solid phase at room temperature (Phys.)

d. dissolves in water (Phys.) e. a sugar solution forms crystals when the water evaporates away (Phys.) f. sugar cubes do not conduct an electrical current (Phys.) g. undergoes a rapid reaction with alcohol and hydrochloric acid (Chem.)
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Exercises
4. Classify the following statements as a physical change or a chemical change. a. Silver metal turns black when exposed to air.

b. A slice of bread turns green after sitting on the kitchen counter for 6 days.

c. A white solid is produced when chlorine gas is mixed with sodium metal.

d. An ice cube disappears if left outside on a windy day when the temperature is -10 oC.

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Exercises
4. Classify the following statements as a physical change or a chemical change. a. Silver metal turns black when exposed to air. (Chem. Change) b. A slice of bread turns green after sitting on the kitchen counter for 6 days. (Chem. Change) c. A white solid is produced when chlorine gas is mixed with sodium metal. (Chem. Change) d. An ice cube disappears if left outside on a windy day when the temperature is -10 oC. (Phys. Change)
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3. Elements and Periodic Table

Element: - An element is one of the fundamental substances from which all material things are constructed.

Everything you see around you is formed from one or more of 118 known elements (as of November 2011). Only 94 of the 118 presently known elements occur naturally.
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Allotropes of Elements
Allotropes - different forms of an element. e.g. Carbon allotropes: graphite, diamond, and fullerenes

Graphite

Diamond

Fullerene

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Chemical Symbols
For simplicity, chemists use Chemical Symbols (one or two-letter abbreviations of the name) to refer to specific elements. Examples:
Name Beryllium
Carbon Copper Potassium

Notes:
Symbol Be
C Cu (from Latin, cuprum) K (from Latin, kalium) Only the first letter is capitalized Temporary 3-letter symbols are assigned to newly or not-yet synthesized elements (e.g. Uun, Uuu, Uub).
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The Periodic Table

The periodic table is a tabular display of the chemical elements, organized according to their chemical properties.
Group

Period

A Group (or a family): a vertical column of elements A Period: a horizontal row of elements

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Other Labels for Groups are also known. e.g.

IIIVA

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Periodic Table in Our Textbook

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Classification of the Elements

Metals: Lustrous, malleable, ductile, electrically conducting solids at room temperature.

Nonmetals: Often gases, liquids, or solids that do not conduct electricity appreciably.
Metalloids: elements with intermediate properties.

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Classification of Elements

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Summary of last lecture

Properties: physical, chemical Changes: physical, chemical Classification of matter:
solid, liquid and gas mixture: homogeneous, heterogeneous) substance: element, compound

Elements:
allotrope, chemical symbol

Periodic table:
group (family), period, classification of elements

Exercises
1. Which of the following statements concerning the relationship between the number of elements and the number of compounds is correct?
A) The number of elements and the number of compounds are approximately the same. B) The number of elements is much larger than the number of compounds. C) The number of compounds is much larger than the number of elements. D) The number of elements must equal the number of compounds.

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Exercises
1. Which of the following statements concerning the relationship between the number of elements and the number of compounds is correct?
A) The number of elements and the number of compounds are approximately the same. B) The number of elements is much larger than the number of compounds. C) The number of compounds is much larger than the number of elements. D) The number of elements must equal the number of compounds.

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Exercises
2. Which of the following CANNOT be the chemical symbol for an element? A) Co B) Cf C) B D) CU

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Exercises
2. Which of the following CANNOT be the chemical symbol for an element? A) Co B) Cf C) B D) CU Chemical symbols: one or two characters, only the first one is in capital letter.

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Exercises
3. The number of known elements at this time is approximately A) 50 B) 100 C) 200 D) infinite

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Exercises
3. The number of known elements at this time is approximately A) 50 B) 100 C) 200 D) infinite Ca. 118 known elements (up to 2011).

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Exercises
4. An element in the fourth period of the periodic table is A) C B) Cu C) Cs D) Cl

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Exercises
4. An element in the fourth period of the periodic table is A) C B) Cu C) Cs D) Cl

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Exercises
4. An element in the fourth period of the periodic table is A) C B) Cu C) Cs D) Cl

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Exercises
4. An element in the fourth period of the periodic table is A) C B) Cu C) Cs D) Cl

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Exercises
5. Which element is a transition metal? A) Mg B) Os C) Xe D) Br

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Exercises
5. Which element is a transition metal? A) Mg B) Os C) Xe D) Br

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Exercises
5. Which element is a transition metal? A) Mg B) Os C) Xe D) Br

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Exercises
5. Which element is a transition metal? A) Mg B) Os C) Xe D) Br

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4. Measurements and Significant Figures

Chemistry is a science that studies matter and its changes.

Chemistry is an experimental science. We do experiments and make observations to explores the MACROSCOPIC world what we can see to understand the PARTICULATE world we cannot see.

Law: Summarizes what happens. Hypothesis: A possible explanation for an observation. Theory: A model to explain why it happens.

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Chemistry and Measurements

In chemistry experiments,
We make QUALITATIVE observations of reactions e.g. changes in color and physical state.
We also make QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENTS.

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Quantitative Measurements
Quantitative measurements consist of two parts: number unit

Examples: 20 grams 20 mL

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The Fundamental SI Units

The SI base units that chemists commonly use: Physical Quantity Mass Name of Unit kilogram Abbreviation kg

Length
Time Temperature

meter
second kelvin

m
s K

Electric current
Amount of substance

ampere
mole

A
mol
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SI units: International System of units

Prefixes Used in the SI System

Prefixes are used to indicate the scale of the unit.

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Chemistry and Measurements

What units are commonly used to measure volume and temperature in chemistry?

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Units of Volume
The SI unit of volume is the cubic meter (m3). The most commonly used units for volume in chemistry are the liter (L) and the milliliter (mL). A liter is a cube 1 decimeter (dm) long on each side.

A milliliter is a cube 1 cm long on each side.

1 m3 = 1000 L 1 L = 1000 mL

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Units of Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the speed of particles in a matter. Usually tells us how hot or cold an object is. Thermometers are used to measure temperature.

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Two Common Units of Temperature

On the Celsius scale, the freezing point of water is 0 C and the boiling point is 100 C. On the Kelvin scale, the freezing point of water is 273.15 kelvin (K), and the boiling point is 373.15 K. The zero point on the Kelvin scale (0 K or absolute zero), is equal to 273.15 C. At this point there is no molecular agitation.

K = oC + 273.15
oC

= K 273.15
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Measurements and Uncertainty: Precision and Accuracy

It is impossible to make exact measurements and all measurements have uncertainties. Uncertainty is expressed in two ways: Accuracy and Precision. Accuracy: agreement of a particular value with the true value. Precision: degree of agreement among several measurements of the same quantity (Reproducibility).

Accuracy No Precision No

Accuracy No Precision Yes

Accuracy Yes Precision Yes

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Significant Figures
The numbers reported in a measurement
are limited by the measuring tool.

A measurement always has some degree

of uncertainty.

A digit that must be estimated is uncertain. One way to indicate uncertainty in a

measurement is to use significant figures.

Significant figures in a measurement

include the known digits plus one estimated digit.
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Rules for Counting Significant Figures

1. Nonzero integers always count as significant figures. 3456 has 4 sig figs (significant figures).
2. Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant figures. 1 inch = 2.54 cm, exactly. 9 pencils (obtained by counting).

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Rules for Counting Significant Figures

3. There are three classes of zeros: a. Leading zeros are zeros that precede all the nonzero digits. These do not count as significant figures.
0.048 has 2 sig figs.

b. Captive zeros are zeros between nonzero digits. These always count as significant figures.
16.07 has 4 sig figs.

c. Trailing zeros are zeros at the right end of the number. They are significant only if the number contains a decimal point.
9.300 has 4 sig figs 150 has 2 sig figs.
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Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

1. For Multiplication or Division: the number of significant figures in the result is the same as the number with the least significant figures used in the calculation.
1.342 5.5 = 7.381
4 sig figs 2 sig figs Corrected

7.4
2 sig figs

Limiting term

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Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

2. For Addition or Subtraction: the result has the same number of decimal places as that with the least decimal places used in the calculation.
23.445 7.83 31.275
31.28
3 dec. places 2 dec. places

Limiting term

Corrected 31.28

Corrected

2 dec. places
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Exercise
1. State the number of significant figures in each of the following: A. 0.030 m 1 2 3 B. 4.050 L C. 0.0008 g 2 1 3 2 4 4

D. 3.00 m
E. 2,080,000 bees

1
3

2
5

3
7

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Exercise
1. State the number of significant figures in each of the following: A. 0.030 m 1 2 3 B. 4.050 L C. 0.0008 g 2 1 3 2 4 4

D. 3.00 m
E. 2,080,000 bees

1
3

2
5

3
7

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Exercise
2. In each calculation, round the answer to the correct number of significant figures. A. 235.05 + 19.6 + 2.1 = 1) 256.75 2) 256.8 B. 58.925 - 18.2 = 1) 40.725 2) 40.73

3) 257

3) 40.7

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Exercise
2. In each calculation, round the answer to the correct number of significant figures. A. 235.05 + 19.6 + 2.1 = 1) 256.75 2) 256.8 B. 58.925 - 18.2 = 1) 40.725 2) 40.73

3) 257

3) 40.7

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Exercise
3. In each calculation, round the answer to the correct number of significant figures.

A.2.19 X 4.2 = 1) 9
B. 4.311 0.07 = 1) 61.58 2.54 X 0.0028 = 0.0105 X 0.060 1) 11.3

2) 9.2

3) 9.198

2) 62

3) 60

C.

2) 11

3) 0.041
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Exercise
3. In each calculation, round the answer to the correct number of significant figures.

A.2.19 X 4.2 = 1) 9
B. 4.311 0.07 = 1) 61.58 2.54 X 0.0028 = 0.0105 X 0.060 1) 11.3

2) 9.2

3) 9.198

2) 62

3) 60

C.

2) 11

3) 0.041
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End

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