Microwave Transmission Lines

Engr. Ghulam Shabbir

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Resonant Transmission Lines

A transmission line that is not properly terminated (i.e., a line terminated in an impedance not equal to its characteristic impedance) is called a resonant (unmatched) line. A resonant circuit is one in which capacitive and inductive reactances cancel each other. An example of such a circuit, at a specific frequency, is a parallel or series LC circuit. Antennas and transmission lines are resonant circuits at many different frequencies. A resonant line may be terminated in an open, in a short, in some capacitive, inductive or resistive values other than the characteristic impedance of the line.

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Resonant Transmission Lines

In any such case, the line cannot deliver full energy to a load. Some of the energy is reflected back to the source and forms standing waves on the line. On a resonant line, some of the energy sent down the line will be reflected back to the source, resulting in standing waves. Every l/2 along a resonant line, high voltage and low current points appear. Halfway between these points, the opposite is true.

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Standing Wave
Incident Wave The wave of voltage or current which travels from source to load is called the incident wave. If the load impedance is equal to the characteristic impedance (Zo) then all energy provided to the load with the help of incident wave will be absorbed by the load. Reflected Wave If the impedance of load is not equal to the characteristics impedance, then there will be the mismatching and some of the energy will be reflected back. Standing Wave The resultant waveform which is produced along the transmission line due to interaction of incident wave and reflected wave is known as standing wave.

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Standing Wave
When an AC signal is transmitted to a transmission line, some of the signal is reflected back toward the source. This reflected wave come back towards the source but the source cannot absorb it, due to which it stays in the transmission line, and attenuates the transfer of power from source to load because it is out of phase w.r.t source.

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Standing Wave
In a transmission line, the transmitter is feeding power (current and voltage) at a certain frequency or wavelength into the line. At the antenna or load end, some of the power is absorbed by the load or radiated. The rest of the power is reflected back along the line towards the transmitter. All along the transmission line the forward and the reflected current and voltages combine to give the total current and voltage anywhere along the line. As long as the load impedance, line length and frequency do not change, a stable pattern of voltage and current peaks and valleys will appear on the line. That is called a "standing wave," since it doesn't change.

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Standing Wave
The general solutions of the transmissionline equation consist of two waves, traveling in opposite directions with unequal amplitude as shown:

so

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Standing Wave
With no loss in generality it can be assumed that V+e and V-e are real. Then the voltage-wave equation can be expressed as
_

This is called the equation of the voltage standing wave, where

Which is called the standing wave pattern of the voltage or the amplitude of the standing wave, and

which is called the phase pattern of the standing wave.

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Standing Wave
The maximum and minimum values of Eq. (3-3-3) can be found as usual by differentiating the equation with respect to z and equating the result to zero. By doing so and substituting the proper values of z in the equation, we find that 1. The maximum amplitude is

2. The minimum amplitude is and this occurs at z = (2n 1)/, where n = 0, 1, 2, ..

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Standing Wave
3. The distance between any two successive maxima or minima is one-half wavelength, since

Then
It is evident that there are no zeros in the minimum. Similarly,

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Standing Wave
The standingwave patterns of two oppositely traveling waves with unequal amplitude in lossy or lossless line are shown as

Standing wave pattern in a lossy line

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Standing Wave

Voltage standing wave pattern in a lossless line

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Standing Wave
A further study reveals that

1. When V+ , V = 0, the standingwave pattern becomes

2. When V+ = , V 0, the standingwave pattern becomes 3. When the positive wave and the negative wave have equal amplitudes (that is, |V+e| = |V-e|) or the magnitude of the reflection coefficient is unity, the standingwave pattern with a zero phase is given by which is called a purely standing wave

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Standing Wave
Similarly, the equation of a pure standing wave for the current is

Equations (3-3-12) and (3-3-13) show that the voltage and current standing waves are 90 out of phase along the line. The points of zero current are called the current nodes. The voltage nodes and current nodes are interlaced a quarter wavelength apart. The voltage and current may be expressed as real functions of time and space:

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Standing Wave
The amplitudes of Eqs. (3-3-14) and (3-3-15) vary sinusoidally with time; the voltage is a maximum at the instant when the current is zero and vice versa. Figure below shows the pure-standing-wave patterns of the phasor of Eqs. (3-3-12) and (3-3-13) for an open-terminal line.

Pure standing waves of voltage and current

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Standing Wave Ratio
The ratio of the maximum voltage to the minimum voltage is a measure of the mismatch and is called the "Voltage Standing Wave Ratio" or VSWR. In the same way, the ratio of the maximum to minimum current is called the "Current Standing Wave Ratio" or ISWR, where the I stands for current. It can be shown that the ISWR is the same as the VSWR, but VSWR is normally easier to measure. Normally we just say SWR, implying VSWR.

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Standing Wave Ratio
Standing waves result from the simultaneous presence of waves traveling in opposite directions on a transmission line. The ratio of the maximum of the standing-wave pattern to the minimum is defined as the standing-wave ratio, designated by . That is,

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Standing Wave Ratio
The standing-wave ratio results from the fact that the two traveling-wave components of Eq. (3-3-1) add in phase at some points and subtract at other points. The distance between two successive maxima or minima is /. The standing-wave ratio of a pure traveling wave is unity and that of a pure standing wave is infinite. It should be noted that since the standing-wave ratios of voltage and current are identical, no distinctions are made between VSWR and ISWR. When the standing-wave ratio is unity, there is no reflected wave and the line is called a flat line.

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Standing Wave Ratio
The standing-wave ratio cannot be defined on a lossy line because the standing-wave pattern changes markedly from one position to another. On a lossless line the ratio remains fairly constant, and it may be defined for some region. For a lossless line, the ratio stays the same throughout the line. Since the reflected wave is defined as the product of an incident wave and its reflection coefficient, the standing wave ratio is related to the reflection coefficient by and vice versa

Standing Wave and Standing-Wave Ratio

Standing Wave Ratio
This relation is very useful for determining the reflection coefficient from the standing-wave ratio, which is usually found from the Smith chart. The following curve shows the relationship between reflection coefficient | | and standing-wave ratio .

As a result of Eq. (3-3-17), since | | 1, the standing-wave ratio i , . From Eq. (3-3-18) the magnitude of the reflection coefficient is never greater than unity.

Example: 3-3-1 : Standing wave ratio

Impedance Matching
Why match? Matching the impedance of a network to the impedance of a transmission line has two principal advantages. First, all incident power is delivered to the network. Second, the generator is usually designed to work into an impedance close to common transmission line impedances. If it does so, the load impedance has no reactive part which can pull the generator frequency, and the VSWR on the line is unity or close to unity so the line length is immaterial and the line connecting the generator to the load is non-resonant.

Impedance Matching
Impedance matching is very desirable with radio frequency (RF) transmission lines. Standing waves lead to increased losses and frequently cause the transmitter to malfunction. A line terminated in its characteristic impedance has a standing-wave ratio of unity and transmits a given power without reflection. Also, transmission efficiency is optimum where there is no reflected power. A flat line is non-resonant ; that is, its input impedance always remains at the same value Z0 when the frequency changes.

Impedance Matching
Matching a transmission line has a special meaning, one differing from that used in circuit theory to indicate equal impedance seen looking both directions from a given terminal pair for maximum power transfer. In circuit theory, maximum power transfer requires the load impedance to be equal to the complex conjugate of the generator. This condition is sometimes referred to as conjugate match. In transmission-line problems matching means simply terminating the line in its characteristic impedance. A common application of RF transmission line is the one in which there is a feeder connection between a transmitter and antenna. Usually the input impedance to the antenna itself is not equal to the characteristic impedance of the line.

Impedance Matching
The output impedance of the transmitter may not be equal to the Z0 of the line. Matching devices are necessary to flatten the line. A complete matched transmission - line system is shown as under:

Matched transmission - line system

Impedance Matching
For a low-loss or lossless transmission line at radio frequency, the characteristic impedance Z0 of the line is resistive. At every point the impedances looking in opposite directions are conjugate. If Z0 is real, it is its own conjugate. Matching can be tried first on the load side to flatten the line; then adjustment may be made on the transmitter side to provide maximum power transfer. At audio frequencies an iron-cored transmitter is almost universally used as an impedance-matching device. Occasionally an iron-cored transmitter is also used at radio frequencies.

Impedance Matching
In a practical transmission-line system, the transmitter is ordinarily matched to the coaxial cable for maximum power transfer. Because of the variable loads, however, an impedancematching technique is often required at the load side. Since the matching problems involve parallel connections on the transmission line, it is necessary to work out the problems with admittances rather than impedance to admittance by a rotation of 180.

Impedance Matching
In a communication network , it is often desirable to adjust its elements, if possible, so that the power delivered to the load is maximum. In order to derive the conditions under which maximum power transfer occurs, consider a load impedance, ZL=RL+jXL=|ZL|ejL, connected to a generator of internal impedance, ZG=RG+jXG=|ZG|ej G, generating a voltage VG. The power, PL, delivered to the load is PL = =
2 +

RL RL

|| (+)+ +

Impedance Matching
Stub
In microwave and radio-frequency engineering, a stub is a length of transmission line or waveguide that is connected at one end only. The free end of the stub is either left open-circuit or (especially in the case of waveguides) short-circuited. Neglecting transmission line losses, the input impedance of the stub is purely reactive; either capacitive or inductive, depending on the electrical length of the stub, and on whether it is open or short circuit. Stubs may thus be considered to be frequency-dependent capacitors and frequency-dependent inductors. Because stubs take on reactive properties as a function of their electrical length, stubs are most common in UHF or microwave circuits where the line lengths are more manageable. Stubs are commonly used in antenna impedance matching circuits and frequency selective filters.

Impedance Matching
Why stub?
Stubs are shorted or open circuit lengths of transmission line intended to produce a pure reactance at the attachment point, for the line frequency of interest. Any value of reactance can be made, as the stub length is varied from zero to half a wavelength. Look at the SMITH chart and find the outer circle where the modulus of the reflection coefficient is one. On this circle are the SHORT and OPEN points, and all values of positive and negative reactance. The resistance is zero everywhere. To generate a specified reactance, start at a short circuit (or maybe an open) and follow around towards the generator until the desired reactance is obtained. Cut the stub number of wavelengths long.

Impedance Matching
Why stub?
It is important to keep the total stub length as short as possible, if wider bandwidths are required. Every time you add a half wavelength to the stub length the reactance of the stub comes back to the same value. It is good design practice to make stubs in the range 0 to 0.5 wavelengths long. However, this may require an impractically short stub, so one can make the stub just a little over 0.5 wavelengths.

Impedance Matching
Short or open stubs?
If it is allowed to use either short or open stubs, the total stub length can always be kept in the range 0 - 0.25 wavelengths. A length of transmission line of 0.25 wavelengths takes half way round the SMITH chart and transforms an open into a short, or vice versa. On microstrip it is usually easier to leave stubs open circuit, for constructional reasons. On coax line or parallel wire line, a short circuit stub has less radiation from the ends: it is difficult to make a perfect non-radiating open circuit as there are always some end effects on the line.

Single stub-matching
Parallel configuration
Short-stub matching
Zo short-stub
x

ZL

open-stub
x

Open-stub matching

Zo

ZL

Single stub-matching
Serial configuration
Short-stub matching i
Zo Zo ZL

short-stub

Open-stub matching i

Zo

Zo

ZL

openstub

Impedance Matching
Stubs design procedure
Find out the load impedance ZL and transmission line characteristic impedance Zo. Calculate the normalized impedance z=(ZL/Zo). Plot it on the SMITH chart. You are told the frequency and the velocity factor of the line. Calculate the wavelength in meters. (or cm). Follow the circle of constant radius on the SMITH chart towards the generator until the locus crosses the r=1 circle. Measure the number of wavelengths along the perimeter of the SMITH chart between the z point originally plotted, and the r=1 circle intersection. This tells you how far from the load to place your stub.

Impedance Matching
Stubs design procedure
Read off from the r=1 intersection the reactance x' value. Starting from a short (or open) follow the r=0 circle around the outside of the SMITH chart until you come to a point of reactance -x'. Measure the number of wavelengths; this represents from short/open end towards the generator. Cut your stub this long. The stub is placed in series with one of the transmission line conductors. In coax this may be difficult to do technically. One therefore often resorts to shunt stub matching, where the stub and the original transmission line are connected in parallel.

Impedance Matching
Stubs design procedure
It is easier to work in admittances. We notice that the SMITH chart can be used as an admittance chart merely by rotating it through 180 degrees. Normalized resistance becomes normalized conductance; normalized reactance becomes normalized susceptance. Admittances in parallel add: short circuit point has infinite admittance open circuit point zero admittance The design procedure is the same as for series stubs.

Impedance Matching
Single-stub Matching
If you look at the SMITH chart you will find a circle of constant real impedance r=1 which goes through the open circuit point and the center of the chart. If you plot any arbitrary impedance on the SMITH chart and follow round at constant radius towards the generator, you must cross the r=1 circle somewhere. This transformation at constant radius represents motion along the transmission line towards the generator. One complete circuit of the SMITH chart represents a travel of one half wavelength towards the generator. At this intersection point your generalized arbitrary load impedance r + jx has transformed to 1 + jx', so at least the real part of the impedance equals the characteristic impedance of the line.

Impedance Matching
Single-stub Matching
Note x' is different from x in general. At this point you cut the line and add a pure reactance -jx'. The total impedance looking into the sum of the line impedance and -jx' is therefore 1 + jx' -jx' = 1 and the line is matched.

Impedance Matching
Single-stub Matching
Although single-lumped inductors or capacitors can match the transmission line, it is more common to use the susceptive properties of short-circuits sections of transmission lines. Short-circuited sections are preferable to open-circuited ones because a good short circuit is easier to obtain than a good open circuit. For a lossless line with Yg = Y0 , maximum power transfer requires Y11 = Y0 , where Y11 is the total admittance of the line and stub looking to the right at point 1-1. The stub must be located at that point on the line where the real part of the admittance , looking towards the load, is Y0 .

Impedance Matching
Single-stub Matching
In a normalized unit y11 must be in the form

Single-stub Matching for Example 3-6-1

Example 3-6-1:

Single-stub Matching

Solution

Graphic solution for Example 3-6-1

Double-stub matching
S1 S2

Open or short stubs

Zo

ZL

The advantage of this technique is the position of stubs ( d and x) are fixed. The matching are done by changing the length of stubs. The disadvantage of this technique is not all impedances can be matched.