Concrete structure

Cement and cement stone

The physic-chemical process that takes place in the system cement-water, is very complex. Every mineralogical component of the cement interacts with water, but in different way, and their processes influence each other. The tricalcium aluminate C3A has the highest speed of reaction with water, Table 2.5.; tetracalcium aluminoferrite C4AF has a position between C3A-C3S; dicalciumsilicate C2S and tricalciumsilicate C3S reacts with water a low speed, and retains at hydration the smallest quantity of water

 The process of forming the cement stone after mixing water with cement is called hardening. This process is caused by the different way of reacting with water of the cement components In any stage of hydration, the capillary pores represent the parts which were not filled in with hydration products. Their volume will decrease with the hydration process.

Fresh concrete (or green concrete)

The concrete in the form that is after mixing its components and till the beginning of its hardening is called fresh concrete. The fresh concrete must be workable, and after its pouring and hardening, it must be compact. The compactness of the hardened concrete is a major property, that influences all mechanical characteristics, (e.g. compressive strength permeability to water, etc.) and the durability of the material.

Consistency of the concrete

The consistency expresses the mobility or the flow aptitude of the fresh mixing, under its own weight or under a mechanical action applied from outside. By the consistency criterion, the concrete can be classified in: fluid, plastic and robust. The fluid concrete is prepared with a higher quantity of water, it has a big mobility and the viscosity and the cohesion are reduced. On inclined surfaces, it flows and at pouring, it fill very easy the form works. The plastic concrete presents a reduced mobility (comparing with the fluid concrete), but the viscosity and the cohesion are bigger. On inclined surfaces, it doesnt flow; it fill easily the form works.

 The robust concrete has a low content of water it presents a reduced cohesion and a big viscosity. When it is poured, it fills in the form works a high mechanical work, being necessary a powerful compaction. Workability The workability represents the concretes property of maintaining its uniformity, of presenting a good cohesion and of being compactable. During handling and transport, the concrete can lose its uniformity by segregation and water separation.

 The concrete with good workability manifests a reduced tendency of segregation and water separation. The mobility, the compactness, the uniformity and the cohesion are the principal conditions that a concrete must have. Plastic shrinkage The volume reduction phenomenon of the concrete after its pouring till the end of its hardening is called plastic shrinkage. Between the two components of the concrete: cement stone and aggregate, the first determines essentially this phenomenon;

Hardened concrete
Structure of the concrete Matrix and aggregate The matrix is formed by the cement hydration products and the cement granules that were not hydrated; the matrix composition includes also the aggregate parts with size 0,2 mm. The matrix structure is different form that of the cement stone; in the cement paste the water quantity varies between 2330%; in concrete, the ratio water: cement is bigger, the supplementary water quantity being necessary to moisten the

SEM images for concrete

Electron microscopy for polymer concrete (reference mix PC2) with 12.4% epoxy resin

Electron microscopy for polymer concrete (mix PCVT1) with 9% epoxy resin and 13% volcanic tuff

Silica fume

Power plant ash

Polymer concrete without addition

Concrete with addition

Separation surface
This surface has important influence on the concrete structure. In the hardening process of the cement paste, at the separation surface, a transition zone, called also contact layer, is formed; its depth is about 25150 m. The porosity of this zone is of about 24 times greater than that of the cement stone, and the mechanical strengths are much smaller, fact that has an unfavorable influence on the concrete behavior. The bond between matrix and aggregates is realized by the mechanical anchorage of the cement to the surface aggregate.

Porous structure of the concrete

The matrix includes capillary pores, gel pores and occluded air. In the cement paste, the intergranulary spaces are occupied with water. During the hydration, the gels occupy these spaces; the spaces that were not filled with gels, constitute the capillary pores of the cement stone.

 The gel pores represent the spaces between particles, which form the gels, being a compound of them. Their size varies between 1430 . The volume of gel pores represents about 28% from the gel volume. The cement stone contains also pores of occluded air. The separation surface is characterized by a bigger porosity than the porosity of compounds.

 Concrete compactness Permeability Permeability represents the property of porous materials of permitting to enter and pass though their mass gases and liquids. The permeability is expressed by the permeability coefficient k (cm.s-1), that represents the water volume that passes through the unit surface of a saturated material, on a normal direction, in the time unit, to a pressure corresponding to a hydraulic gradient equal to unit.

 The concrete permeability is expressed by the waterproof degree (grade) that represents the maximum value of waters pressure to which the concrete test samples (cubes with 141 or 200 mm size) dont present infiltrations on the opposite side, (STAS 3519-79). The waterproof grade is noted P, and is followed by a number that represents the maximum value of the pressure. By the waterproof grade, the concretes are classified in: P2, P4, P8, P12, P16, (STAS 362279). Usually, the water penetration in the test sample mass is limited to 10 cm.

Concrete behavior to frost thaw cycles

The concrete behavior is given by the frostclefness grade that is defined by the number of frost-thaw cycles until the test samples dont present a reduction of the compressive strength of more than 25% and a reduction of the elasticity dynamic modulus of more than 15%. The concretes can be classified such as: G 50, G 100, G 150.

Thermal dilatation of the concrete

The concrete behavior to temperature variations depends on the climatic conditions and its thermal properties. The thermal dilatation coefficient of the concrete varies between 4,1.10-6 and 14,6.10-6K-1 Other thermal properties of the concrete The thermal conductivity of the concrete is expressed by the thermal conductivity (), that represents the warmth quantity (kcal) that crosses in one hour a material layer of 1 m depth, the temperature difference being of 1C. The thermal conductivity takes values between 1,193,72 kcal/m.h.C,

 2.3. Experimental tests 2.3.1. Mechanical tests Compressive strength. Five cubes of 70 mm sizes were tested in axial compression according to SR EN 123903:2002 [27]. Flexural strength. The tests were done according to SR EN 12390-5:2002 [28], Fig. 1 on five prism of 70x70x210 mm sizes.

 Elasticity modulus. For determining the elasticity modulus three samples of 25x25x80 mm sizes were used (according to STAS 5585-71 [29]). The computational equation is: E = / (N/mm2) (2) Maximum pull-out stress for a plain bar, = 16 mm. The tests were realized according to STAS 5511-1989 [30]. Three cubic samples with 70 mm size were tested, (Fig. 2a, 2b, 2c).

 The adherence stress between cement concrete- polyurethane acryl concrete. The test were done according to a method conceived by Research Institute in Construction INCD URBAN INCERC from Iasi-Romania on three samples, Fig. 3a, 3b, 3c, 3d: the samples, simply supported, loaded with an concentrated load in the midspan, were tested in flexure. The cross section had the sizes: width b = 70 mm and depth h = 60 mm. The failure is produced at the contact zone between the two materials cement concrete and poly-urethane acryl concrete.

2.3.2. Thermo-physical tests Bulk density in natural and dry state. The tests were done according to SR EN 771-3:2004 [31] and SR EN 772-13:2001 [32] Relative and absolute mass humidity. For testing according to SR EN 771-3:2004 [31], SR EN 772-10:2001 [32] five samples having the same sizes as in the case of density test were used. Thermal conductivity. The test was done according to STAS 5912 89 [34] using the method of one sample body. The samples had the same sizes as in the case of density test. According to standard, the sample was maintained to a temperature of 105 0C until constant mass.

After that, the sample was introduced in conductivity-device, equipped with measuring traductors which determine the thermal flux density which crosses the sample from the top to the bottom in central zone, knowing the depth d of the sample and the temperature difference between the superior and inferior surfaces T of the tested sample. Linear thermal dilatation. The experimental tests were done according to SR EN ISO 10545-8:2000 The samples were dried at constant temperature (1105)0C until constant mass, and then were introduced in desiccator for cooling at ambient temperature. The length of the sample was measured initially and for each temperature interval of maximum 150C.The heating speed was (51)0C/min.

 Thermal shock strength. The test was done according to SR EN ISO 10545-9:2000 [36] using the method by immersion. Five samples were used having the sizes: L=11.9512.00 mm; l=3.32 3.52; h=10mm. Chemical resistance. The tests were done according to SR EN ISO 10545-13:2001 [37] For the tests the following solutions were used: Solution of hydrochloric acid 3 % (volumetric percentage) Solution of hydrochloric acid 18 % (volumetric percentage)

 Water adsorption. The tests were done according to SR EN ISO 10545-3:1999 [39] on three .The water adsorption by boiling into water at 1000C during 2 hours and cooling in water during 2 hours and 15 minutes, so a total immersion in liquid of about 4 hours and 15 minutes was a hardness test for EPUAC