The circulatory system

Refer Chapter 43, Internal transport, pg 919

Circulatory system in……….
Unicellular organisms and
Multicellular organisms
Trading with the Environment

• Every organism must exchange

materials with its environment
– And this exchange occurs at the cellular
level
• In unicellular organisms
– exchanges occur directly with the environment

• In multicellular organisms
– by diffusion is NOT possible, WHY?
– not possible for transporting substances over
long distance in animal
– The surface area to volume ratio of the organism
is small so that diffusion of materials across the
body surface cannot keep pace with demand

Most complex animals have internal transport systems

That circulate fluid, providing a lifeline between the aqueous

environment of living cells and the exchange organs (such as lungs)
that exchange chemicals with the outside environment
Unicellular organism: in contact with the
environment
• A single-celled protist living in Diffusion
water
– Has a sufficient surface area of
plasma membrane to facilitates
the direct exchange with the
environment
(S.A.-to-Vol. R ↑)

• Exchange with the environment (a) Single cell

occurs as substances dissolved
in the aqueous medium Contact with the
– Nutrients and oxygen move environment
across the plasma
membrane into the
cytoplasm.
– Metabolic wastes (CO2) move
• The feathery gills projecting from a salmon
– Are an example of a specialized exchange
system found in animals
Invertebrate circulation
(1) Gastrovascular cavities
(2) Open and closed circulatory
system L.O.
Compare and contrast internal transport in
animals with
NO circulatory system (gastrovascular
cavity)
With an open circulatory system
And with a closed circulatory system
 Types of circulatory systems
• NO circulatory system
– No specialized circulatory
structures
– E.g. sponges, jellyfish, comb
jellies, flat worms, round worms
– Cnidarians (jellyfish),
gastrovascular cavity (both
circulatory and digestive
organs)---animal stretches and
contracts—stir up the contents
of the gastrovascular cavity,
distribute nutrients
– Flatworm, flattened body—
effective gas exchange by
diffusion, gastrovascular cavity
—branched
Invertebrate circulation: Gastrovascular
Cavities
• Simple animals/multicellular Mouth

organism, (cnidarians)
– body wall only two cells thick Gastrovascular
that encloses a gastrovascular cavity

cavity
Diffusion

• The fluid inside the cavity is

continuous with the water
outside, via a single
opening. Diffusion

• Only the cells of the inner

layer have direct access to
nutrients,
– but the nutrients have to
diffuse only a short distance to (b) Two cell layers
 Invertebrate circulation:

Open and Closed Circulatory Systems

• More complex animals

– Have one of two types of circulatory
systems: open or closed

• Both of these types of systems have three

basic components
– A circulatory fluid (blood> con. t)
– A set of tubes (blood vessels, in which blood
circulates)
– A muscular pump (the heart)
 Open circulatory system
In insects (arthropods) and most molluscs
– Blood bathes the organs directly in an open
circulatory system
Blood– and
Heart pumps blood
interstitial intothe
fluid are vessels
samethat have open
– hemolymph.
ends
Spaces surrounding the organs – sinuses---make up the
hemocoel (invert. blood cavity)
Heart

Hemolymph in sinuses
surrounding organs

Figure: (a) An open circulatory system

Open circulatory system
When the heart contracts,
the heart pumps the
hemolymph through vessels Heart

out into sinuses---where

materials are exchanged
between the hemolymph and
cells. Hemolymph in sinuses
surrounding organs

When the heart relaxes,

hemolymph returns to the Anterior Lateral
Ostia Tubular heart
vessel
heart through ostia, which are vessels

equipped with valves

The body movements that
squeeze the sinuses help
circulate the hemolymph.
The rate of hemolymph
Figure 42.3a (a) An open circulatory system
circulation increases when
 Figure 43.2: Open circulatory
systems.
In mollusks and arthropods, a heart
pumps the blood into arteries that end
in sinuses of the hemocoel.
Hemolymph circulates through the
hemocoel.

In mollusks,
Heart- 3 chambers (TWO atria, SINGLE
ventricle)
heart >sinuses of the hemocoel >gills
>heart
In arthropods,
heart> sinuses of the hemocoel >
heart via ostia
In some molluscs and arthropods---have hemocyanin,
(copper-containingAn open circulatory
hemolymph system
pigment); cannot
when
provide enoughBLOODS!!
oxygenated, blue colour----BLUE oxygen to maintain the
 Open circulatory system

Open circulatory system show :

(2) a lowered transport efficiency and
(3) a slower circulatory time
Annelids, cephalopods and
echinoderms
Closed circulatory system
Heart
In a closed circulatory system
– Blood is confined to
vessels and is distinct from
Chemical exchange
the occurs:
interstitial fluid Interstitial
-between the blood and the fluid Small branch vessels
bathing in each organ
interstitial fluid, the cells
-and between interstitial fluid and
body cells. Dorsal vessel
(main heart)

Auxiliary hearts Ventral vessels

(b) A closed circulatory system
 • Earthworms, have
hemoglobin
– NOT contained within RBC,
but dissolved in the blood
plasma

• TWO main blood vessels

– dorsal and ventral vessels,
connected by lateral vessels

• FIVE contractile b.v. (heart) pump blood

• Dorsal vessel, 5 contractile b.v. and contraction
body wall muscle--> circulate the blood
What is the advantage associated with…
…..?
Open circulatory system
– Energy expenditure ↓
–Because they lack an extensive system of blood
vessels-- require less energy.
Closed circulatory system
-More efficient at transporting circulatory fluids >>
tissues and cells.
-To meet the high metabolic demands of the
tissues and cells of larger and more active animals
Vertebrate Circulation
Cardiovascular system
 What are the functions of the
vertebrate circulatory system?
(1) Transportation of nutrients, respiratory
gases, wastes and hormones
(2) Maintenance of fluid balance
(3) Internal defense
(4) Thermoregulation
(5) Maintenance of pH
 Vertebrate Circulation

• Humans and other vertebrates have a

closed circulatory system
– cardiovascular system

• Blood flows in a closed cardiovascular

system
– Consisting of blood vessels and a two- to
four-chambered heart
Evolution of the vertebrate
cardiovascular system
L.O.
Describe the evolution of the
vertebrate cardiovascular system
from fish to mammal
Vertebrate circulation: Fishes
• A fish heart has two main chambers
Fish
– One ventricle and one atriumswimming
movement
• A single circuit of blood flow aids blood FISHES
circulation Gill capillaries
– one way street!

• Blood pumped from the ventricle Artery Gill

circulation
– Travels to the gills (gill Heart:
ventricle (V)
circulation), where it picks up O2 Atrium (A)

, disposes of CO2 Systemic

Vein circulation

– The gill capillaries converge into

a vessel that carries O2 rich
Systemic capillaries
blood to capillary beds, all other
Note: In a fish, blood must pass through two capillary Pressure low
parts of the body (systemic
beds during each circuit. here
 Vertebrate circulation:
Amphibians
• Frogs and other amphibians
– Have a three-chambered heart, with
two atria (singular, atrium) and one
ventricle
– Oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood— AMPHIBIANS

kept separated Lung and skin capillaries

– Both atria pump into a single ventricle,

oxygen-poor blood is pumped out of the
Pulmocutaneous
ventricle before oxygen-rich blood circuit
enters
– Atria separated, ventricle undivided, A A

oxygen and de-oxygenated blood are V

Right Left
prevented from mixing by conus Systemic
arteriosus, which keeps the blood apart circuit

• The ventricle pumps blood into a

forked artery Systemic capillaries

– That splits the ventricle’s output into

 Vertebrate circulation: Amphibians
• Pulmocutaneous circuit
(pulmo- lung; cutaneous-skin)
– The route of circulation that directs blood to
the skin and lungs.

• Systemic circuit
– The branch of the circulatory system that
supplies oxygen-rich blood (oxygenated blood)
to all body organs and then return oxygen-poor
blood (deoxygenated blood) to the right atrium
via the veins.
 Sinus venosus receives
oxygen-poor blood
Sinus venosus > atrium >
returning from tissues
ventricle
and pumps it into atrium

Conus arteriosus, an artery

with fold that helps to keep
blood separate
Vertebrate circulation:
Reptiles
(e.g. crocodiles, alligators)
• Reptiles have double REPTILES

circulation Lung capillaries

– With a pulmonary circuit

(lungs) and a systemic circuit Pulmonary
Right
systemic circuit

• In most reptiles (turtles, aorta

Left

lizards, snakes)—wall A A Systemic

aorta
V V
separating the ventricles is Right Left

incomplete, partially divided

Systemic
ventricle—3 chambered circuit

heart Systemic capillaries

Vertebrate circulation: Mammals and
birds
• In all mammals and birds
– The ventricle is completely
divided into separate right and
left chambers MAMMALS AND BIRDS
Lung capillaries

• The left side of the heart

pumps and receives only
oxygen-rich blood
Pulmonary
circuit

– While the right side receives and

pumps only oxygen-poor blood A A
V V
Right Left
Systemic
circuit

Systemic capillaries
 Vertebrate circulatory systems

FISHES AMPHIBIANS REPTILES MAMMALS AND BIRDS

Gill capillaries Lung and skin capillaries Lung capillaries Lung capillaries

Artery Pulmocutaneous Right Pulmonary Pulmonary

Gill
circuit systemic circuit circuit
circulation
aorta
Heart:
ventricle (V) Left
A A A A A
A Systemic
Atrium (A) V V aorta
V V V
Right Left Right Left Right Left
Systemic Systemic Systemic
Vein circulation circuit circuit

Systemic
circuit
Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries
Figure 42.4
 The human heart
L.O.
(1) Draw the structure and describe the
function of the human heart
(2) Describe the events of the cardiac cycle,
relate the normal heart sound to the cardiac
cycle
human heart: FACTS!!

Not much bigger than a FIST!!

Beats about 2.5 million times in an
average lifetime, vary its output
from 5 to > 20 L blood
 Pericardium, Epicardium, myocardium,
Endocardium
• Walls of the heart,
– cardiac muscle—myocardium
• Inner surface of heart,
endocardium
• Outer surface of the heart,
Epicardium

• Pericardium
– Connective tissue sac,
encloses the heart
– Between inner and outer
pericardium form a small
space, pericardial cavity
contain pericardial fluid,
reduce friction
What are the major
blood vessels to and
from the heart ??

Coronary
arteries:
arteries which
supply blood
to the heart
muscle
Structure and functions of the four heart
chamber
• The heart has four chamber
– The receiving chambers: right atrium, left atrium
– The discharging chambers: right ventricle, left
ventricle
• The internal partition (septum) that divides
the heart longitudinally is called
– Interatrial septum (between atria)
– Interventricular septum (between ventricles)
– Fossa ovalis is located in the interatrial septum, remnant of
the fetal foramen ovale
• Bloods enters the right atrium through:
– (1) anterior vena cava: returns blood from body
regions above the diaphragm (upper body)
– (2) posterior vena cava: returns blood from body
regions below the diaphragm (lower body)
 a.k.a Head & neck
Brachiocephalic
trunk
I L C S
Upper limb
L (arm)
Right pulmonary artery
Aorta

Anterior vena cava Left pulmonary artery

Right atrium Left

atrium

Right pulmonary
veins Left
pulmonary
veins

Semilunar
Semilunar
(aortic) valve
(pulmonary) valve

Bicuspid valve
Tricuspid
valve

Aortic arch> Innominate

Posterior artery (IA), Left common
vena cava Right ventricle carotid artery (LCCA), Left
Left ventricle
Subclavian artery (LSA)
Brachio- =
arm;
Cephalic- =
head
 Fetal Foramen ovale become
Fossa ovalis
• Foramen ovale (fetal heart)
– an opening on the interatrial septum
– Lets blood flow directly from right to left atrium
– So very little passes to the non-functional lungs
• Fossa ovalis
– Shallow depression

Foramen ovale closes shortly after birth, become

fossa ovalis.
When an infant takes its first breath, the lung
expand and blood flow to the lung increases---blood
return from lung to heart---increase pressure in left
atrium, pushes a valve against the interatrial
Ductus arteriosus---a vessel linking pulmonary artery
and aorta
Ductus arteriosus closes by vasoconstriction almost
immediately after birth, becomes the ligamentum
arteriosum
 Heart valves
• Blood flows through the heart in one direction
• This one-way traffic is enforced by four heart
valves:
– the paired atrioventricular (AV) and semilunar (SL) valves
• AV valves held in place by chordae tendinae (KOR-
de TEN-di-nee), “heartstrings”
– Attach valves to the papillary muscles at the wall of the
ventricles, prevent from opening backward into atria,
ensure the valves open in one direction.
• Both the left AV (bicuspid/mitral valve, two
cusps/flaps) and the right AV (tricuspid valve, three
cusps/flaps) open when the ventricles relaxes.
– When the ventricles contract, the AV valves close, forcing
blood to leave the heart via the two semilunar valves
• SL valves (pulmonary valve and aortic valve)
 Semilunar valve and atrioventricular valve, which is
which?? Where are they located?

Semilun
ar valve

Semilun
ar valve AV valve

AV valve

AV valves located between the atria and ventricles

Semilunar valves located between the ventricles and blood
vessels of the heart
Superior vena cava
Aorta

Left pulmonary
arteries
Right pulmonary Pulmonary artery
arteries Pulmonary veins
Pulmonary valve
Left atrium
Right atrium Mitral valve
Pulmonary veins Aortic valve
Chordae tendineae
Tricuspid valve (“heartstrings”)
Papillary muscles
Right ventricle Left ventricle

Inferior vena cava Interventricular

septum
Aorta
Fig. 43-9, p. 929
 Mammalian Circulation: The Pathway
• Heart valves
– Dictate a one-way flow of blood through the heart
• Blood begins its flow
– With the right ventricle pumping blood to the lungs
Anterior vena cava

• In the lungs
– The blood loads O2 and Pulmonary
artery
unloads CO2
Pulmonary
• Oxygen-rich blood from the veins

lungs
– Enters the heart at the left Right Left
atrium and is pumped to
the body tissues by the left
ventricle Posterior vena cava
Pathway of blood through the heart
• The heart is a double pump that serves two
circulations.

• The blood vessels that carry blood to and from

the lungs form the pulmonary circuit, strictly
serves gas exchange.

• The right side of the heart (right ventricle) is

the pulmonary
Oxygen-poor ORcircuit
carbonpump, to the lung.blood
dioxide-rich
returning from the body → right atrium →
right ventricle → pumps it to the lung via
pulmonary artery
• The blood vessels that carry blood to and from all
body tissues constitute the systemic circuit.
• The left side of the heart (left ventricle) is the
systemic circuit pump, that has to pump blood
through the entire systemic circulation against
high resistance.

Oxygenated blood leaving the lungs →

return to the left atrium → left ventricle →
pump through the aorta → the body tissues
(gases and nutrients exchange) → right
atrium through anterior and posterior vena
cava
The cardiovascular system:
On the right side, blood flows out to the lungs, pulmonary
circulation
While on the left side, blood flows
7 into aorta and to the systemic
Capillaries of
circulation.Anterior head and
vena cava
forelimbs

Pulmonary Aorta Pulmonary

9 artery
artery
6
Capillaries
of right lung Capillaries
2 of left lung
3 4
3
Pulmonary 11
vein Pulmonary
5 Left atrium vein
1
Right atrium 10
Left ventricle
Right ventricle Aorta

Posterior Capillaries of
vena cava abdominal organs
8 and hind limbs
Figure 42.5
Anatomical differences in the right and left
ventricles
• Although equal volumes of blood are flowing in the
pulmonary and systemic circuits, the two ventricles
have very unequal work loads.
– The pulmonary circuit, served by the right ventricle is a
low pressure circulation whereas
– The systemic circuit, associated by the left ventricle,
takes a long pathway through the entire body, has a
higher blood pressure.
– The pressure needed to keep the blood flowing in the
pulmonary circulation (typically 4kPa) is much less than
needed in the systemic circulation (typically 16kPa)
– Thus, the walls of the left ventricle are thicker and
more muscular than those in the right ventricle.
 Cardiac cycle

• The sequence of heart beat (heart

contracts and relaxes)
– In a rhythmic cycle called the cardiac
cycle

• The contraction or pumping phase of

the cycle
– Is called systole (atrial systole;
ventricular systole)
 The cardiac cycle
Cardiac cycle refers to events occurring during one
heart Semilunar
beat. 2 Atrial systole;
valves ventricular For a human adult at rest, a
closed diastole
pulse of about 75 beats per
min, one complete cardiac
cycle takes about 0.8s.
(1) During a relaxation
0.1 sec
Semilunar phase, blood returning from
valves
0.4 sec
0.3 sec open large veins flows into the
atria and ventricles.
AV valves
open (2) Atrial systole forces all
remaining blood out of the
AV valves atria into the ventricles.
1 Atrial and closed
ventricular
diastole 3 Ventricular systole; (3) Ventricular systole
atrial diastole
pumps blood into the large
Figure 42.7
arteries.
 Superior vena cava Aorta Pulmonary artery
Right atrium Semilunar valves
Tricuspid valve Pulmonary vein
Inferior vena cava Left atrium
Mitral valve
5 Period of falling 1 Atrial systole. Atria
pressure. Blood contract, pushing
flows from blood through open
veins tricuspid and mitral
into relaxed valves into
atria. Right Left ventricles.
ventricle ventricle Semilunar valves
are closed.
“lub” 2 Beginning of
ventricular systole.
Ventricles contract;
Heart pressure within
sounds ventricles
increases and
“dup” closes tricuspid
and mitral valves,
4 Beginning of causing first heart
ventricular sound.
diastole. Pressure
in relaxing 3 Period of rising
ventricles drops pressure.
below that in Semilunar valves open
arteries. when pressure in
Semilunar valves ventricle exceeds that
snap shut, in arteries. Blood
causing second spurts into aorta and
heart sound. pulmonary artery.
Fig. 43-11, p. 931
 Heart Sound
• Normal heart sounds arise from the closing of heart
valves.

• During each cardiac cycle, two distinguishable sounds

can be heard with a stethoscope : “lub-dup”

• The first sound

– “lub” : created by the recoil of blood against the
closed AV valves (during ventricular systole).
• The second sound
– “dup” : created by the recoil of blood against the
semilunar valves (during ventricular diastole).

• Abnormal or unusual heart sounds are called heart

murmurs (a defect in one or more valves).
– Some are born with heart murmurs, some damaged by
infection (e.g. rheumatic fever).
“lub”
“dup”
 Pulse: Think of the water hose!!
During the passage of blood from ventricle into
the aorta and along the entire systemic
circulation, a wave of dilation (expansion)
sweeps along a linear fashion followed
immediately by a wave of contraction.

These alternate contractions and dilations may

be felt as the pulse if a finger is placed above
an artery that lies close to skin.

The pulse is actually a measure of the

 Pulse
• The elastic walls of the arteries expand
when they receive the blood expelled from
the ventricles.

• By feeling your pulse, your heart rate can

be measured.

• Pulse: the rhythmic stretching of arteries

caused by the pressure of blood driven by
the powerful contractions of the ventricles
 Cardiac output
• The volume of blood that left the ventricle,
pumps into the systemic circuit in 1 minute is
called
– Cardiac output
• Cardiac output depends on two factors:
– (1) Heart rate (pulse) = no. of beats (ventricular
contraction) per minute
– (2) Stroke volume = the amount of blood pumped
by left ventricle with each beat.
Cardiac output (L/min) = HR (beats/min) X SV
(ml/beat)
= 70 beats/min X 75 mL/beat
Coordination of the heart
 Sinoatrial node (SAN)
• The heart has an innate ability to beat on their own.

• The sinoatrial node (SAN), a small patch of

specialized cardiac muscle, located in the wall of the
right atrium near the entrance of the anterior vena
cava.

• It acts as the pacemaker, sets the rhythm of the

heart

• The pacemaker is influenced by

– Nerves, hormones, body temperature (temp↑, HR
↑) and exercise.
 Coordination of the heart beat
• The cells of the SAN are spontaneously
active or myogenic (self excitable), contract
rhythmically in the absence of stimulation.
• Nerve that carry impulse to the heart,
influence rate and strength of contraction,
do NOT initiate heartbeat
• Excitation originating in the SAN spreads
out across the atria, producing a uniform
contraction called atrial systole, which fill
ventricles with blood.
• Excitation must pass to the ventricles by the
way of the atrioventricular node (AVN), a
Coordination of the heart beat….continue
• From the AVN, the impulse sweeps to the
atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His) and
through the right and left bundle branches.
• The bundle branches carry signals downward to
the base of the heart.
• The signals are transmitted to a network of
Purkinje fibers within the ventricle walls.
• Thus, the contraction, called ventricular systole,
starts at the bottom of the heart and spread
upwards, forcing the blood out from the ventricles
into the aorta and pulmonary artery.
SAN> Atrial muscle fibers (atria contract)>AVN > AV bundle
“Bundle of His”> Right and Left AV bundle branches > Purkinje
fibers> ventricular fibers (ventricles contract)
1. SA node or
Left atrium
pacemaker
Right atrium
2. 3.
AV node AV bundle

5.
Left ventricle
Purkinje fibers
Right and left 4.
branches
Right ventricle of AV bundle

Fig. 43-10a, p. 930

 Electrocardiogram (ECG)
• The electrical activity of a person’s heart can be
detected by placing metal electrodes on the
external surface of his body, usually on the legs,
arms and chest.

• The graphic recording of electrical changes

during the heart activity, called an
electrocardiogram (ECG).

• Diagnosis of heart diseases: monitoring changes

in heart rate (tracing electrical changes in the
heart), used in conjunction with exercise
machines.
Abnormalities in the ECG
What does that implies?
Irregular rhythm of the heart
Impulse transmission is delayed,
blocked at some point in the
conduction of the heart
What is the solution??
Artificial pacemakers
 P-wave, QRS region, T-wave
Each beat of the heart is
characterized by five
separable wave regions on
the ECG.
• The P-wave represents the electrical activity
(atrial depolarization, loss of resting potential)
and contraction of the atria as excitation spreads
outwards from the SAN.

• QRS region corresponds to excitation of the

ventricles (ventricular depolarization; ventricular
contraction). Its complicated shape reveals the
different size of the two ventricles and the time
required for each to depolarize.

• The final T-wave signals recovery of the ventricles

(ventricular repolarization) at the end of
contraction, muscle relaxing, ventricles starting
 Spike

Membrane potential (mV)

Depolarization Repolarization

Threshold Resting
level state

Time (milliseconds)

(a) Action potential.

Fig. 40-7a, p. 853
 The control of heart rhythm
1 Pacemaker generates 2 Signals are delayed 3 Signals pass 4 Signals spread
wave of signals at AV node. to heart apex. Throughout
to contract. ventricles.

Bundle of His

AV node Bundle
SA node branches
(pacemaker)
Heart Purkinje
R apex fibers
T
P
ECG
Q S
Figure 42.8
 Systemic circulation
• The pattern of circulation:
– Blood is pumped through pulmonary and
systemic circuits
• The pulmonary circulation oxygenates the
blood
• The systemic circulation delivers blood to
the tissues
– The carotid arteries supply the brain (head) &
neck
– The subclavian arteries supply the upper
appendages
 Systemic circulation
• Veins return blood to the right side of
the heart
– Jugular veins return blood from the brain
– Subclavian veins, from the upper
appendages
– Renal veins, from kidneys
– Iliac veins, from lower appendages
Renal, iliac and hepatic veins empty into the Posterior vena cava
– Hepatic veins, from the liver
Jugular and subclavian veins empty into the Anterior vena cava
 Blood vessel:
The blood’s highway
 Blood vessels:
Arteries> arterioles> capillaries> venules > veins
• Arteries
– Carry blood from the heart
– Smaller arteries: arterioles
– Branch into arterioles that convey blood to capillaries

• Capillaries
– The sites of chemical exchange between the blood and
interstitial fluid
– Network of these vessels: capillary beds
(Lies between arterioles and venules)
– Capillaries converge into venules and venules converge into
veins.

• Veins
– Return blood to the heart
– Smaller
REMEMBER: veins:and
Arteries venules
veins are distinguished by the direction in
which they carry blood, NOT by the characteristic of the blood they
contain.
 Blood Vessel: Structure and Function

The “infrastructure” of the circulatory

system
– network of blood vessels
All blood vessels (artery, arteriole, venule, vein
except capillaries)
– are built of three similar layers;
• Outer layer: Connective tissue
• Middle layer: Smooth muscle
• Inner layer: Endothelium
Capillaries: lack the two outer layers, consist
of endothelium and basement membrane
 Artery Vein

Basement
membrane
100 µm
Endothelium

Valve
Endothelium Endothelium

Smooth Smooth
muscle muscle
Capillary
Connective
Connective tissue
tissue

Artery Vein

Venule
Arteriole

Figure 42.9: The structure of blood vessels.

Arteries
• Connective tissue (tunica externa:
inelastic)
• Smooth muscle (tunica media: thickest
layer)
The functional contractions of the artery are
carried out by this layer.
(3) Endothelium (intima: elastic membrane)

Veins
• Have similar 3 structure walls except that they
are thinner.
• Rely on a series of one-way valves working
• Structural differences in arteries, veins,
and capillaries
– Correlate with their different functions

• Arteries have thicker walls (middle and

outer layers)
– To accommodate the high pressure of
blood pumped from the heart
– Their elasticity helps maintain blood
pressure even when the heart relaxes
between contractions.
• In the thinner-walled veins
– Blood flows back to the heart mainly as a result of
muscle action
– Blood is convey back to the heart at low velocity
and pressure
Direction of blood flow
in vein (toward heart)
Valve (open)

Contraction of Skeletal muscle

skeletal
muscles helps Valve
(clos
move blood ed)
through the
veins. Figure 42.10: Blood flow in
veins
Several mechanisms assist the
return of venous blood to the
heart
(1) Rhythmic contraction of smooth muscles in
walls of venules and vein
(2) Contraction of skeletal muscles during
exercise
(3) Change in pressure within thoracic (chest)
cavity during inhalation causes vena cava and
other large vein expand and filled with blood
 Blood flow 5,000

velocity
4,000

Area (cm2)
3,000
2,000
1,000

• The velocity of blood

0

flow varies in the

Velocity (cm/sec)
50
40

circulatory system
30
20
10
0

– And is slowest in the

capillary beds as a
result of the high
resistance and large
Pressure (mm Hg)
120 Systolic
100 pressure

total cross-sectional
80
60
40 Diastolic
20
pressure

area
0

Aorta

Veins
Arteries

Venules
Capillaries
Arterioles

Venae cavae
Figure 42.11: The interrelationship of blood flow
velocity, cross sectional area pf blood vessels and
blood pressure
 Blood pressure
depends on blood flow and
CO increases, increase blood
flow, blood pressure
increases, BP greatest in the
artery, very low in the vein

resistance to blood flow

Peripheral resistance> friction between blood
and vessel’s wall---blood viscosity, size of the
blood vessel lumen, total blood vessel length
Vasoconstriction of bv raises BP, vasodilation
lowers BP
During hemorrhage or chronic bleeding, blood volume reduced, blood pressure
drop.
A high dietary in-take of salts causes water retention, increases blood volume,
raises blood pressure.
 Blood Pressure
Blood Pressure
–Is the force that blood exerts against the inner wall of
a vessel
–Determined by CO, blood vol. , and resistance to blood
flow
–Expressed as a fraction, systolic--numerator, diastolic
--denominator
Systolic pressure A normal blood
–Is the pressure in the arteries during ventricular
pressure,
systole measured in the
upper arm with a
–Is the highest pressure in the arteries
–< 120 mm Hg sphygmomanomet
Diastolic pressure er—110/73 mm Hg
–Is the pressure in the arteries during diastole
 The blood pressure
• Produced by two primary events
The first force: the force of the heartbeat
imposed on the blood leaving the ventricle
(cardiac output/blood flow)

The second force: the peripheral resistance (back

pressure) to that force, imposed by the arteries
and, more significantly, the arterioles
For example,
When water moves through a garden hose, the pressure within
the hose is determined by the head of pressure at the source
and the resistance along the hose and its end. If the nozzle of
the hose is constricted, the hydrostatic pressure will rise.
Similarly, if the hose itself is sharply bent, the resistance to flow
increases sharply and the pressure will go way up.
Blood pressure
1 A typical blood pressure reading for a 20-year-old 4 The cuff is loosened further until the blood flows freely
is 120/70. The units for these numbers are mm of through the artery and the sounds below the cuff
mercury (Hg); a blood pressure of 120 is a force that disappear. The pressure at this point is the diastolic
can support a column of mercury 120 mm high. pressure remaining in the artery when the heart is relaxed.
Blood pressure
reading: 120/70
Pressure Pressure Pressure
in cuff in cuff in cuff
Rubber cuff above 120 below 120 below 70
inflated 120 120

with air 70

Sounds
Sounds stop
audible in
Artery stethoscope
Artery
closed
A stethoscope is used to listen for sounds of blood flow
2 A sphygmomanometer, an inflatable cuff attached to a 3
pressure gauge, measures blood pressure in an artery.
below the cuff. If the artery is closed, there is no pulse
The cuff is wrapped around the upper arm and inflated
below the cuff. The cuff is gradually deflated until blood
until the pressure closes the artery, so that no blood
begins to flow into the forearm, and sounds from blood
flows past the cuff. When this occurs, the pressure
pulsing into the artery below the cuff can be heard with
exerted by the cuff exceeds the pressure in the artery.
the stethoscope. This occurs when the blood pressure
is greater than the pressure exerted by the cuff. The
pressure at this point is the systolic pressure.
Figure 42.12: Measurement of blood pressure.
Blood pressure is recorded as two numbers separated by a slash.
First number= systolic pressure; the second number= diastolic pressure
 Capillary Function
• Capillaries in major organs are usually filled
to capacity (brain, heart, kidney and liver)
– But in many other sites, the blood supply
varies
– Blood is divert from one destination to
another
For example,
After a meal, blood supply increases in the
digestive tract. During strenuous exercise, blood
is diverted from the digestive tract and supplied
more generously to skeletal muscles and skin.
 Capillary Function
• Two mechanisms regulate the
distribution of blood in capillary beds
– In one mechanism
• Contraction of the smooth muscle layer in
the wall of an arteriole constricts the vessel
– In a second mechanism
• Precapillary sphincters control the flow of
blood between arterioles and venules
• Precapillary sphincters?
-rings of smooth muscle located at the
entrance to capillary beds.
 Precapillary
Thoroughfare
sphincters
channel

Arteriole Venule

• The critical (a) Sphincters relaxed

Capillaries

exchange of
substances
between the blood
and interstitial fluid Arteriole Venule

– Takes place across (b) Sphincters contracted

the thin endothelial

walls of the
capillaries
Figure 42.13 a–c (c) Capillaries and larger vessels (SEM)
20 µm
• The difference between blood pressure and osmotic
pressure
– Drives fluids out of capillaries at the arteriole
end and into capillaries at the venule end
• Interstitial fluid:
– The internal environmental in vertebrates,
exchanges nutrientsTissue
andcell wastes with blood
carried in capillaries.
INTERSTITIAL FLUID
Net fluid Net fluid
Capillary movement out movement in
Capillary Red Blood 15 µm
cell At the venule end of a
capillary, blood pressure is
At the arterial end of a less than osmotic pressure,
capillary, blood pressure is Direction of blood flow and fluid flows from the
greater than osmotic pressure, interstitial fluid into the
and fluid flows out of the Blood pressure capillary.
capillary into the interstitial fluid. Osmotic pressure
Pressure

Inward flow

Outward flow

Arterial end of capillary Venule end

Figure 42.14: Fluid exchange between capillaries and the interstitial fluid
Fluid Return by the Lymphatic System

• The lymphatic system functions

– (1) Collects and returns interstitial fluid
to the blood
– (2) Aids in body defense
– (3) Absorbs lipids from the digestive tract
• Fluid reenters the circulation
– Directly at the venous end of the
capillary bed and indirectly through the
lymphatic system
Fluid Return by the Lymphatic System
• Interstitial fluid diffuses into tiny lymph capillaries
intermingled among capillaries of the
cardiovascular system.

• Once inside the lymphatic system, the fluid is

called lymph.
• Its composition is about the same as that of
interstitial fluid.
• The lymphatic system return lymph into the
circulatory system, at the base of the subclavian
veins
• Lymph vessels (like veins)
– have valves, to prevent the backflow of fluid
toward the capillaries.
– depend mainly the movement of skeletal
muscles, to squeeze fluid toward the heart.
• Lymph nodes
– Filter the lymph and attack viruses and
bacteria.
– This defense is carried out by specialized white
blood cells that inhabit the lymph nodes.
• Lymph capillaries
– penetrate small intestine villi and absorb fats,
thus transporting them from the digestive
system to the
Tonsils, thymus circulatory
gland, system. of lymph tissue,
and spleen—masses
part of lymphatic system
 The lymphatic system plays an
important role in fluid homeostasis
• Bloods enters a capillary network---
under high pressure, plasma forced
out of the capillaries into tissues
• Plasma that leaves the b.v. called
interstitial fluid OR tissue fluid---
contain glucose, a.a., nutrients, var.
of salts, oxygen
• Force pushing plasma out from blood
is hydrostatic pressure (blood
pressure against capillary wall)
 A shortage of proteins within the blood,
largely albumin, would inhibit the
reabsorption of fluid at the venule end of
a capillary bed.
The failure to reabsorb fluid will produce
a generalized swelling known as edema.
 Blood

“Blood is a connective tissue

with cells suspended in plasma.”
• Blood in the circulatory systems of
vertebrates
– Is a specialized connective tissue
 Blood: Composition and Function

• Blood consists of several kinds of

cells
– Suspended in a liquid matrix called
plasma, 55% of the blood vol.
• The cellular elements (platelets and
blood cells)
– Occupy about 45% of the volume of
blood
 Plasma
• Blood plasma is ~90-92% water

• ~7-10% dissolved materials

(Proteins, glucose, ions, hormones, wastes and
gases)
– Inorganic salts in the form of dissolved ions,
referred to as electrolytes

• Types of plasma proteins

– E.g. Albumin, fibrinogen, globulins (α, β, γ or
Immunoglobulins)
– Function in lipid transport, immunity, and blood
clotting

• plasma proteins---albumins and globulins

 Plasma 55% When the proteins
Constituent Major functions involved in blood
Water Solvent for clotting removed from
carrying other
substances plasma, liquid called
Ions (blood electrolytes)
Sodium Osmotic balance
serum
Potassium pH buffering, and Separated
Calcium regulation of blood
Magnesium membrane elements
Chloride permeability
Bicarbonate
Plasma proteins
Albumin Osmotic balance,
pH buffering
The composition of
mammalian
Fibrinogen Clotting

Immunoglobulins Defense
(antibodies)

Substances transported by blood

plasma
Nutrients (such as glucose, fatty acids, vitamins)
Waste products of metabolism
Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2)
Hormones
Figure 42.15: The composition of mammalian plasma
 Cellular Elements
• Suspended in blood plasma are two
classes of cells
– Red blood cells, which transport oxygen
– White blood cells, which function in
defense
• A third cellular element, platelets
– Are fragments of cells that are involved in
clotting (stop hemorrhage/bleeding)
The shape of the red blood cell
is often described as a
biconcave disc.
What is the evidence from this
photograph that these cells could
have a biconcave shape?
 Erythrocytes (RBC): “bags” of hemoglobin
• Red blood cells, or erythrocytes
– Biconcave disc:
• thinner in the center than at the edges
– 7- 8.5µm in diameter, Lifespan: 120 days or 3-4
months
– Are by far the most numerous blood cells
– Produced within the red bone marrow of certain
bones:
RBC production, regulated by hormone,
• Vertebrae, ribs, breastbone, skull bones and
erythropoietin
long bones
 RBC
• Mature red blood cells lack a nucleus, have no
organelles
• The bulk of the RBC is taken up by protein
hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the chief transport
protein involved in carrying oxygen.
• An erythrocyte contains about 250 million
molecules of hemoglobin, Each hemoglobin binds
up to four molecules of O2.
• When blood circulates through the liver and
spleen, phagocytic cells remove worn-out RBCs
Anemia
fromisthe
a deficiency of hemoglobin, or no. of RBC, or BOTH---due to
circulation
bleeding, decreased production of hemoglobin or RBCs due to lack of
iron, or destruction of RBCs (sickle cell anemia)
 RBC: Facts!!
Biconcave shape gives 30% more surface area
than a sphere
Easily deformed—important in passing through
tiny capillaries
RBCs have no mitochondria, don’t use the
oxygen they carry, rely on glucose absorbed
from the blood plasma
Their metabolism entirely anaerobic!! (Hence,
short lifespan)
 Leukocytes (WBC)
• Larger than erythrocytes (RBC)
• Have a nucleus, lack hemoglobin
• The blood contains five major types of
white blood cells, or leukocytes
– Basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils, monocytes,
and lymphocytes,
– which function in defense
(by phagocytizing bacteria and debris or by
producing antibodies)
Leukemia is a cancer of WBC, overabundance of these immature cells,
leads to impaired clotting
 Leucocytes (WBC)
Two main groups:
• Granulocytes:
– Basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils
>Have granules in their cytoplasm
>Have a multilobed nucleus

• Nongranulocytes (agranulocytes)
– Lymphocytes and monocytes
>Do NOT have granules and have nonlobular nuclei
– Lymphocytes (T and B cells)
>T cells: attack cells containing bacteria
>B cells: produce antibodies
 Cellular elements 45%
Cell type Number Functions
per µL (mm3) of blood

Erythrocytes
(red blood cells) 5–6 million Transport oxygen
and help transport
carbon dioxide
Separated
blood
elements Leukocytes 5,000–10,000 Defense and
(white blood cells) immunity

The cellular
elements of
Basophil Lymphocyte

Eosinophil

Neutrophil
mammalian
blood
Monocyte
Platelets 250,000− Blood clotting
400,000

Figure 42.15: Cellular elements of the mammalian blood

 Platelets (Thrombocytes)

• Are rounded bodies (cell

fragments that bud off
from megakaryocytes in
bone marrow)
• 2-3µm in diameter, no
nuclei
• Essential in blood
clotting, they initiate
blood clotting process
 Stem Cells and the
Replacement of Cellular
Elements

• The cellular elements of blood wear

out
– And are replaced constantly throughout
a person’s life
Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets
all develop from a common source Pluripotent stem cells
(in bone marrow)

–A single population of Lymphoid

cells called pluripotent stem cells Myeloid
stem cells
stem cells in the red
marrow of bones
Basophils

B cells T cells

Lymphocytes
Eosinophils

Neutrophils
Erythrocytes
Pluripotent: ability to develop
Monocytes
into many different cell types of Figure 42.16
Platelets

the body
 Blood Clotting

– The clotting process is initiated by injury

to blood-vessel walls.
– The clot consists of a network of fibrin
and blood cells
 A cascade of complex reactions
– Converts fibrinogen to fibrin, forming a clot
1 The clotting process begins
when the endothelium of a
vessel is damaged, exposing
connective tissue in the
vessel wall to blood. Platelets
adhere to collagen fibers in
the connective tissue and
release a substance that
makes nearby platelets sticky.
3 vessel damage is severe. Fibrin is formed via a
2 The platelets form a
plug that provides
emergency protection
against blood loss.
This seal is reinforced by a clot of fibrin when
multistep process: Clotting factors released from the
clumped platelets or damaged cells mix with clotting
factors in the plasma, forming an activation cascade
that converts a plasma protein called prothrombin to
its active form, thrombin. Thrombin itself is an enzyme
that catalyzes the final step of the clotting process,
the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin. The threads of
fibrin become interwoven into a patch (see colorized
SEM).

Collagen
fibers Platelet Fibrin clot Red blood cell
Platelet releases chemicals plug
that make nearby platelets sticky

Clotting factors from:

Platelets
Damaged cells
Plasma (factors include calcium, vitamin K)

Prothrombin Thrombin

Figure 42.17 Fibrinogen Fibrin

5 µm
Cardiovascular disease
Cardiovascular disease:
Atherosclerosis
• atherosclerosis
– Is caused by the buildup of cholesterol within
arteries
Connective
Plaque
tissue
Endothelium
Smooth muscle

(a) Normal artery

50 µm (b) Partly clogged artery 250 µm
Atherosclerosis
 Atherosclerosis
– narrowing of the coronary arteries,
inadequate supply of blood to the heart
muscle, lead to angina.
– angina: pain in the chest because of
narrowing of the arteries supplying
blood to the heart muscle)
Cardiovascular diseases:
disorders of the heart and the blood vessels

• Hypertension, or high blood pressure

– Promotes atherosclerosis and increases the risk
of heart attack and stroke
• A heart attack
– Is the death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting
from blockage of one or more coronary arteries
• A stroke
– Is the death of nervous tissue in the brain,
usually resulting from rupture or blockage of
arteries in the head
END OF LECTURE