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26. Quantum physics Content 26.1 Energy of a photon 26.2 Photoelectric emission of electrons 26.3 Wave-particle duality 26.4 Energy levels in atoms 26.5 Line spectra Learning outcomes Candidates should be able to: (a) show an appreciation of the particulate nature of electromagnetic radiation (b) recall and use E = hf (c) show an understanding that the photoelectric effect provides evidence for a particulate nature of electromagnetic radiation while phenomena such as interference and diffraction provide evidence for a wave nature (d) recall the significance of threshold frequency (e) explain photoelectric phenomena in terms of photon energy and work function energy
(f) explain why the maximum photoelectric energy is independent of intensity, whereas the photoelectric current is proportional to intensity (g) recall, use and explain the significance of hf = + mv2max (h) describe and interpret qualitatively the evidence provided by electron diffraction for the wave nature of particles (i) recall and use the relation for the de Broglie wavelength = h/p (j) show an understanding of the existence of discrete electron energy levels in isolated atoms (e.g. atomic hydrogen) and deduce how this leads to spectral lines (k) distinguish between emission and absorption line spectra (l) recall and solve problems using the relation hf = E1 E2.
Bedtime stories
The particle theory(copuscular theory) predicted that light should speed up when passing from air to water. The wave theory predicted the opposite. In 1862, the speed of light in water was measured and found to be less than in air So far we have learnt about properties of waves and that light is a wave motion and introduced concepts of interference and diffraction In the last 100 years, new phenomena has revolutionized physics A number of experiments in 1900 showed that light behaves more like a stream of particles than as a wave Then later, it was shown experimentally that electrons, which had always been thought of as particles, could also behave as waves This wave-particle duality is one of the most important concepts of modern physics The phenomena that light had a particle nature is the explanation of Albert Einstein in 1905 for which he received the 1921 Nobel Prize Then, we shall find that diffraction which is a characteristic of waves is exhibited by electrons which have always been considered to be particles!
Evidence for wave-nature of light Diffraction and interference Evidence for particle-nature of light Photoelectric effect Compton effect
Light exhibits diffraction and interference phenomena that are only explicable in terms of wave properties Light is always detected as packets (photons); if we look, we never observe half a photon
Symmetry in physics
Photoelectric emission
In a metal, some electrons are free to move around it which forms the electric current when a potential difference is applied across the ends of a wire To remove free electrons from a metal or to make an electron escape from the surface of a metal requires energy, because they are held together by the electrostatic attraction of the positively charged nuclei When this energy that is required to remove an electron is in the form of light energy, the phenomenon is called photoelectric emission Hence photoelectric emission is the release of electrons from the surface of a metal when electromagnetic radiation is incident on its surface
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
I Ammeter Potentiostat
cont..
When the experiment is repeated with radiation of greater intensity but the same frequency, the max current increases but the value of the stopping potential is unchanged. The graph of max k.e. vs frequency of radiation gives a straight line Conclusions to be drawn: The photoelectrons have a range of k.e. from zero up to some max value If the frequency of the incident radiation is increased, the max k.e. of the photoelectrons also increases For constant frequency, the max k.e. is unaffected by the intensity of radiation If the graph of max k.e. vs frequency of radiation is extrapolated to the point where the max k.e. of the electrons is zero, the min frequency required to cause emission i.e.the threshold frequency can be found The above 2 experiments on photoemission showed conclusively that radiation of frequency below the threshold, no matter how intense or for how long, does not produce photoelectrons This cast a major doubt as to whether light is a continuous wave (which was until then fully accepted due to interference and diffraction effects)
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PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
When UV light is shone on a metal plate in a vacuum, it emits charged particles (Hertz 1887), which were later shown to be electrons by J.J. Thomson (1899).
Vacuum chamber Metal plate Light, frequency Collecting plate
Hertz
J.J. Thomson
Classical expectations
Electric field E of light exerts force F=eE on electrons. As intensity of light increases, force increases, so KE of ejected electrons should increase. Electrons should be emitted whatever the frequency of the light, so long as E is sufficiently large
I Ammeter Potentiostat
For very low intensities, expect a time lag between light exposure and emission, while electrons absorb enough energy to escape from material
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Actual results: Maximum KE of ejected electrons is independent of intensity, but dependent on For <0 (i.e. for frequencies below a cut-off frequency) no electrons are emitted There is no time lag. However, rate of ejection of electrons depends on light intensity. Einsteins interpretation (1905): Light comes in packets of energy (photons)
Einstein
E h
An electron absorbs a single photon to leave the material
Millikan
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f0/Hz 5.8 x 1014 7.0 x 1014 8.8 x 1014 1.0 x 1014 1.4 x 1014
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Example
The work function energy of platinum is 9.0 x 10-19 J. Planks constant h = 6.63 x 10-34 J s Calculate a) the threshold frequency for the emission of photoelectrons from platinum b) the maximum k.e. of a photoelectron when radiation of frequency 2.0 x 1015 Hz is incident on a platinum surface Solution a) using hf0 = , f0 = /h = 1.4 x 1015 Hz b) using hf = hf0 + mevmax2 mevmax2 = hf - hf0 = h(f f0) = 4.0 x 10-19 J
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COMPTON SCATTERING
Compton (1923) measured intensity of scattered X-rays from solid target, as function of wavelength for different angles. He won the 1927 Nobel prize. X-ray source
Compton
Target
Detector Result: peak in scattered radiation shifts to longer wavelength than source. Amount depends on (but not on the target material).
COMPTON SCATTERING
Classical picture: oscillating electromagnetic field causes oscillations in positions of charged particles, which re-radiate in all directions at same frequency and wavelength as incident radiation. Change in wavelength of scattered light is completely unexpected classically
Oscillating electron
Comptons explanation: billiard ball collisions between particles of light (X-ray photons) and electrons in the material
Before
Incoming photon
After
Electron
p
scattered photon
pe
scattered electron
COMPTON SCATTERING
Before
Incoming photon
After
p
Electron
p
scattered photon
pe
scattered electron
Conservation of energy
Conservation of momentum
Electron diffraction
If light waves can behave like particles (photons) perhaps particles can behave like waves? If a beam of X-rays of a single wavelength is directed at a thin metal foil, a diffraction pattern is produced. This is a similar effect to the diffraction pattern produced when light passes through a diffraction grating. The foil contains many crystals and the gaps between neighboring planes of atoms in the crystals act as slits, creating a diffraction pattern If a beam of electrons is directed at a thin metal foil, a similar diffraction pattern is produced The electrons which we normally consider to be particles, are exhibiting a property which we would normally associate with waves To observe diffraction, we know that the wavelength of the radiation should be comparable to the size of the aperture The fact that diffraction is observed with electrons suggests that they have a wavelength of about the same magnitude as the separation of planes of atoms in crystals of the order of 10-10 m
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At fixed accelerating voltage (fixed electron energy) find a pattern of sharp reflected beams from the crystal
ELECTRON DIFFRACTION
a cos i
r
Path difference:
a ( c o s c o s r i)
Constructive interference when
a ( c o s c o s ) n r i
a cos r
Note i and r not necessarily equal
Double-slit experiment for electrons When electrons fired toward a slit for which d < , a diffraction pattern is seen If current is lowered so that only 1 electron is allowed at a time pattern is STILL SEEN!
Diffraction
Electron diffraction
Electron Microscopes
Wave-particle duality
In 1924 Louis de Broglie suggested that all moving particles have a wave-like nature. Using ideas based upon the quantum theory and Alert Einsteins theory of relativity, he suggested that the momentum p of a particle and its associated wavelength are related by the equation = h/p where h is the Planck constant. is known as the de Broglie wavelength
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Example
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron traveling with a speed of 1.0 x 107 m/s. (Planck constant h = 6.6 x 10-34 J s; electron mass me = 9.1 x 10-31 kg) Solution Using = h/p ,
p = h/ = 7.3 x 10-11 m
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Spectra
White light is not a single colour. If white light from a tungsten filament is passed through a prism, the light due to refraction is spread out or is dispersed into its component colors and the band of different colors is called a continuous spectrum In the case of white light it ranges from 400 nm to 700 nm (800 THz to 400 THz) (VIBGYOR) Since this spectrum has been produced by the emission of light from the tungsten filament lamp, it is referred to as an emission spectrum When a high potential difference is placed across 2 electrodes of a discharge tube (which is a transparent tube containing a gas at low pressure) light is emitted Examination of the light with a diffraction grating shows that the emitted spectrum is no longer continuous but consists of a number of bright lines. Such a spectrum is known as a line spectrum The wavelengths corresponding to the lines of the spectrum are characteristic of the gas which is in the discharge tube
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Spectroscopy
Because all elements have different energy levels, the energy differences are unique to each element, consequently each element produces a different and characteristic line spectrum Spectra can be used to identify the presence of a particular element and the study of spectra is called spectroscopy and instruments used to measure wavelengths of spectra are called spectrometers Spectrometers for accurate measurements of wavelength make use of diffraction gratings to disperse the light
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Continuous spectra
Whilst the light emitted by isolated atoms such as those in lowpressure gases in tubes produce line spectra, the light emitted by atoms in a solid, liquid or gas at high pressure produces a continuous spectrum This is due to the proximity of the atoms to each other which causes interaction between the atoms resulting in a broadening of the electron energy levels seen as a continuous spectrum
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Absorption spectra
If white light passes through a low-pressure gas and the spectrum of the white light is then analyzed, it is found that light of certain wavelengths is missing and in their place are dark lines This type of spectrum is called an absorption spectrum As the white light passes through the gas, some electrons absorb energy and make transitions to higher energy levels The wavelengths of the light they absorb correspond exactly to the energies needed to make the particular upward transition When these excited electrons return to lower levels, the photons are emitted in all directions rather than in the original direction of the white light, hence some wavelengths appear to be missing The wavelengths missing from an absorption spectrum are exactly those present in the emission spectrum of the same element
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Example
Calculate the wavelength of the radiation emitted when the electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from the energy level at -0.54 x 10-18 J to the level at -2.18 x 10-18 J (Planck constant h = 6.62 x 10-34 J s, c = 3.00 x 108 m/s) Solution Using E = E2 E1 = 1.64 x 10-18 J And using = hc/E = 121 nm
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