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Chromatography (from Greek word chromos) - a family of laboratory techniques for the separation of mixtures. It involves passing a mixture which contains the analyte through a stationary phase, which separates it from other molecules in the mixture and allows it to be isolated. Which means ... Chromatography is the physical separation of a mixture into its individual components. We can use chromatography to separate the components of inks and dyes, such as those found in pens, markers, clothing, and even candy shells. Chromatography can also be used to separate the colored pigments in plants or used to determine the chemical composition of many substances.
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CHROMATOGRAPHY
Chromatography basically involves the separation of mixtures due to differences in the distribution coefficient (equilibrium distribution) of sample components between 2 different phases.
One of these phases is a mobile phase and the other is a stationary phase.
Examples of Chromatography
Liquid Chromatography
Used to identify unknown plant pigments & other compounds.
Thin-Layer Chromatography
Uses thin plastic or glass trays to identify the composition of pigments, chemicals, and other unknown substances.
Gas Chromatography
Used to determine the chemical composition of unknown substances, such as the different compounds in gasoline shown by each separate peak in the graph below.
Paper Chromatography
Can be used to separate the components of inks, dyes, plant compounds (chlorophyll), make-up, and many other substances
CHROMATOGRAPHY
Chromatography is used to separate and analyse small amounts of mixtures Methods involve a stationary phase and a mobile phase. There are several forms of chromatography
TYPE paper thin layer (tlc) column high pressure liquid (hplc) gas liquid (glc)
STATIONARY PHASE solid (filter paper) solid (silica) solid (silica) solid (silica) solid or liquid
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Stationary phase Mobile phase Separation chromatography paper suitable solvent (water, ethanol, organic solvent) As the solvent moves up the paper it dissolves the components and moves them up the paper. The more soluble a component is, the further it moves.
Place small a spot of the mixture to be analysed (and any possible component for comparison purposes) on the paper. Dip the paper in the solvent.
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Stationary phase Mobile phase Separation chromatography paper suitable solvent (water, ethanol, organic solvent) As the solvent moves up the paper it dissolves the components and moves them up the paper. The more soluble a component is, the further it moves.
Place small a spot of the mixture to be analysed (and any possible component for comparison purposes) on the paper. Dip the paper in the solvent.
Allow the solvent to rise up the paper. Each component dissolves in the solvent. Those which are more soluble travel further up the paper.
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Stationary phase Mobile phase Separation chromatography paper suitable solvent (water, ethanol, organic solvent) As the solvent moves up the paper it dissolves the components and moves them up the paper. The more soluble a component is, the further it moves.
Place small a spot of the mixture to be analysed (and any possible component for comparison purposes) on the paper. Dip the paper in the solvent.
Allow the solvent to rise up the paper. Each component dissolves in the solvent. Those which are more soluble travel further up the paper.
Finished chromatogram
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Rf value Under similar conditions, a component should always travel at the same speed. Its identity can be found by comparing the distance it moves relative to the solvent.
X
Rf = distance travelled by the component distance travelled by the solvent = Y X
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Rf value Under similar conditions, a component should always travel at the same speed. Its identity can be found by comparing the distance it moves relative to the solvent.
X
Rf = distance travelled by the component distance travelled by the solvent Comparison can be a problem if a) components have similar Rf values b) the unknown substance is new and there is no previous chemical to compare it with = Y X
MOBILE PHASE
The solvent moving through the column Either a liquid or a gas
STATIONARY PHASE
The one that stays in place inside the column Most commonly a viscous liquid chemically bonded to the inside of a capillary tube or onto the surface of a solid particles packed in the column
Substances that are less attracted to the solid or are more soluble in the liquid move faster. And so move further up the plate by the time that the process has been stopped by taking the plate out of the liqiud. - larger Rf
1
For substances that are rather insoluble in the liquid Rf will be close to ....
SP Solid
MP Liquid/Gas
Stronger adsorption, slower travel time
SP Liquid bonded to solid surface MP Gas Solute equilibrates bet SP and MP (GC)
ION-EXCHANGE CHROMATOGRAPHY
SO3 Na
Separation in Ion-exchange Chromatography is based on the competition of different ionic compounds of the sample for the active sites on the ionexchange resin (column-packing).
pH2
+ +
SO3
Na
H3 N
COOH
Ion-exchange Resin
SO3
H3 N Na
+
COO
pH4.5
Mobile Ph ase H3 N Na
+ +
COOH OH H3 N
+
SO3
pH3. 5 OH
H3 N
+
Na Na SO3
+
COO
OH = H2 O
H3 N
-
COO SO3Na+
OH = H2 O
pH4. 5
MP Liquid/Gas
Separates molecules by size
GEL-PERMEATION CHROMATOGRAPHY
Gel-Permeation Chromatography is a mechanical sorting of molecules based on the size of the molecules in solution. Small molecules are able to permeate more pores and are, therefore, retained longer than large molecules.
SP Solid
MP Liquid
Very selective Ex. Antibodies, proteins
A sample mixture is passed through a column packed with solid particles which may or may not be coated with another liquid. With the proper solvents, packing conditions, some components in the sample will travel the column more slowly than others resulting in the desired separation.
1. Liquid/Solid Chromatography (adsorption chromatography) A. Normal Phase LSC (SP = P; MP = NP) B. Reverse Phase LSC (SP = NP; MP = P) 2. Liquid/Liquid Chromatography (partition chromatography) A. Normal Phase LLC B. Reverse Phase LLC 3. Ion Exchange Chromatography 4. Gel Permeation Chromatography (exclusion chromatography)
The separation mechanism in LSC is based on the competition of the components of the mixture sample for the active sites on an absorbent such as Silica Gel.
WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
1. Niacinamide
N
2.
Pyridoxine H3C HO
N CH2OH CH2OH
CONH 2
3.
4. Thiamin
O NH
H3C N
NH 2 CH2 N
CH2CH2OH Cl CH3
WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
2
3 Inject 1 4
10
15
20
LIQUID-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY
The stationary solid surface is coated with a 2nd liquid (the Stationary Phase) which is immiscible in the solvent (Mobile) phase. Partitioning of the sample between 2 phases delays or retains some components more than others to effect separation.
The red molecules are more soluble in the liquid (or less volatile) than are the green molecules. Which molecule will be eluted first?
About 1L of liquid is injected into one end of the column. As each component reaches the other end it is detected and registered on a chart recorder.
The Retention Time is characteristic of a particular substance. (for the same column, temperature, gas flow etc.)
Injection port
Oven
Recorder
Detector
Column
Nitrogen cylinder
Chromatogram of petrol
SOLVENTS
Polar Solvents
Water > Methanol > Acetonitrile > Ethanol > Oxydipropionitrile
LSC or LLC
IEC LLC GCC
Detectors 1.
Ultraviolet Detector
200-400nm 254 nm
2.
THE CHROMATOGRAM
A graph showing the detector response as a function of elution time
Retention Time, tr
Time required for the sample to travel from the injection port through the column to the detector.
Res pons e D
10
15
20
25
Retention Time
Retention Volume, Vr
Volume of the MP required to elute a particular solute from the column
a = tr2/tr1
The greater the a, the greater the separation between two components
Selectivity
Selectivity
Response X
X1 X0
3 Retention Time
Capacity Factor, k
k = tr tm / tm
The longer the component is retained in the column, the greater the k May be used to assess the performance of the column
Sample Problem
1. A mixture of benzene, toluene and methane (MP) was injected into a gas chromatograph. Methane gave a sharp spike in 42 s, whereas benzene required 251 s and toluene was eluted in 333 s. Find the adjusted retention time and capacity factor for each solute and the relative retention.
Answers - Sample Problem trbenzene = 209 s trtoluene = 291 s kbenzene = 5.0 ktoluene = 6.9 a = 1.39
EFFICIENCY OF SEPARATION
RESOLUTION
How close two bands in a chromatogram can be to each other and still be seen as two peaks The difference in the retention times of adjacent peaks divided by their width
Resolution = Dtr/wav
wav = average width of the 2 peaks
Length of a column necessary for the attainment of compound distribution equilibrium (measure the efficiency of the column).
RESOLUTION
2 V2 4
V1 V0
1 3 W1 V3 W2 W3 W4
V4
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Increase column length Decrease column diameter Decrease flow-rate Pack column uniformly Use uniform stationary phase (packing material) Decrease sample size Select proper stationary phase Select proper mobile phase Use proper pressure Use gradient elution