Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Elaine N. Marieb
Seventh Edition

Chapter 12 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses

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Lymph Nodes

Figure 12.3
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The Lymphatic System

Two parts
Lymphatic vessels
Lymphoid tissues and organs

Lymphatic system functions

Transport fluids back to the blood Play essential roles in body defense and resistance to disease
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Absorb digested fat at the intestinal villi Slide 12.1

Lymphatic Characteristics
Lymph excess tissue fluid carried by lymphatic vessels

Properties of lymphatic vessels

One way system toward the heart No pump Lymph moves toward the heart Milking action of skeletal muscle

Rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle in vessel walls

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Slide 12.2

Lymphatic Vessels

Figure 12.1

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Lymphatic Vessels
Lymphatic collecting vessels
Collects lymph from lymph capillaries Carries lymph to and away from lymph nodes
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Figure 12.2

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Lymphatic Vessels
Lymphatic collecting vessels (continued)
Returns fluid to circulatory veins near the heart Right lymphatic duct
Thoracic duct
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Figure 12.2

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Lymph
Materials returned to the blood
Water Blood cells Proteins

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Lymph
Harmful materials that enter lymph vessels
Bacteria Viruses Cancer cells Cell debris

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Lymph Nodes
Filter lymph before it is returned to the blood
Defense cells within lymph nodes
Macrophages engulf and destroy foreign substances

Lymphocytes provide immune response to antigens

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Lymph Nodes

Figure 12.3
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Lymph Node Structure

Figure 12.4
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Other Lymphoid Organs

Several other organs contribute to lymphatic function
Spleen Thymus

Tonsils
Peyers patches
Figure 12.5
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Slide 12.9

The Spleen
Located on the left side of the abdomen
Filters blood

Destroys worn out blood cells

Forms blood cells in the fetus

Acts as a blood reservoir

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The Thymus
Located low in the throat, overlying the heart Functions at peak levels only during childhood Produces hormones (like thymosin) to program lymphocytes

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Tonsils
Small masses of lymphoid tissue around the pharynx Trap and remove bacteria and other foreign materials Tonsillitis is caused by congestion with bacteria

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Peyers Patches

Found in the wall of the small intestine Resemble tonsils in structure Capture and destroy bacteria in the intestine

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Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT)

Includes:
Peyers patches Tonsils Other small accumulations of lymphoid tissue

Acts as a guard to protect respiratory and digestive tracts

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Body Defenses
The body is constantly in contact with bacteria, fungi, and viruses (pathogens) The body has two defense systems for foreign materials
Nonspecific defense system Mechanisms protect against a variety of invaders Responds immediately to protect body from foreign materials
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Body Defenses

Specific defense system

Specific defense is required for each type of invader
Also known as the immune system

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Nonspecific Body Defenses

Body surface coverings
Intact skin
Mucous membranes

Specialized human cells

Chemicals produced by the body

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Surface Membrane Barriers First Line of Defense

The skin
Physical barrier to foreign materials pH of the skin is acidic to inhibit bacterial growth Sebum is toxic to bacteria Vaginal secretions are very acidic
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Surface Membrane Barriers First Line of Defense

Stomach mucosa
Secretes hydrochloric acid Has protein-digesting enzymes

Saliva and lacrimal fluid contain lysozyme Mucus traps microogranisms in digestive and respiratory pathways
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Defensive Cells
Phagocytes (neutrophils and macrophages)
Engulfs foreign material into a vacuole Enzymes from lysosomes digest the material
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Figure 12.6b

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Macrophage attacking e-coli.

Defensive Cells

Natural killer cells

Can lyse and kill cancer cells Can destroy virusinfected cells

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Figure 12.6b

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Inflammatory Response Second Line of Defense

Triggered when body tissues are injured
Produces four cardinal signs
Redness Heat Swelling

Pain

Results in a chain of events leading to protection and healing

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Functions of the Inflammatory Response

Prevents spread of damaging agents

Disposes of cell debris and pathogens

Sets the stage for repair

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Steps in the Inflammatory Response

Figure 12.7
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Antimicrobial Chemicals
Complement
A group of at least 20 plasma proteins Activated when they encounter and attach to cells (complement fixation)
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Figure 12.8

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Antimicrobial Chemicals
Complement (continued)
Damage foreign cell surfaces Will rupture or lyse the foreign cell membrane
Figure 12.8
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Antimicrobial Chemicals

Interferon
Secreted proteins of virus-infected cells Bind to healthy cell surfaces to inhibit viruses binding

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Interferons are a family species-specific proteins synthesized by eukaryotic cells in response to viruses and a variety of natural and synthetic stimuli. There are several different interferons commonly used as therapeutics, termed alpha, beta, and gamma. These peptides are used to treat hairy cell leukemia, AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma, laryngeal papillomatosis, genital warts, and chronic granulomatous disease. Side effects include black tarry stools, blood in the urine, confusion, and loss of balance.

Fever
Abnormally high body temperature Hypothalmus heat regulation can be reset by pyrogens (secreted by white blood cells) High temperatures inhibit the release of iron and zinc from liver and spleen needed by bacteria Fever also increases the speed of tissue repair
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Specific Defense: The Immune System Third Line of Defense

Antigen specific recognizes and acts against particular foreign substances

Systemic not restricted to the initial infection site

Has memory recognizes and mounts a stronger attack on previously encountered pathogens
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Types of Immunity
Humoral immunity
Antibody-mediated immunity

Cells produce chemicals for defense

Cellular immunity
Cell-mediated immunity Cells target virus infected cells
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Antigens (Nonself)
Any substance capable of exciting the immune system and provoking an immune response Examples of common antigens
Foreign proteins Nucleic acids Large carbohydrates

Some lipids
Pollen grains Microorganisms
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Self-Antigens
Human cells have many surface proteins Our immune cells do not attack our own proteins Our cells in another persons body can trigger an immune response because they are foreign
Restricts donors for transplants
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Allergies
Many small molecules (called haptens or incomplete antigens) are not antigenic, but link up with our own proteins
The immune system may recognize and respond to a protein-hapten combination The immune response is harmful rather than protective because it attacks our own cells
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Cells of the Immune System

Lymphocytes
Originate from hemocytoblasts in the red bone marrow B lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the bone marrow T lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the thymus

Macrophages
Arise from monocytes Become widely distributed in lymphoid organs
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Activation of Lymphocytes

Figure 12.9
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Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response

B lymphocytes with specific receptors bind to a specific antigen

The binding event activates the lymphocyte to undergo clonal selection

A large number of clones are produced (primary humoral response)
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Humoral (Antibody Mediated) Immune Response

Most B cells become plasma cells
Produce antibodies to destroy antigens Activity lasts for four or five days

Some B cells become long-lived memory cells (secondary humoral response)

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Humoral Immune Response

Figure 12.10
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Active Immunity
Your B cells encounter antigens and produce antibodies Active immunity can be naturally or artificially acquired
Figure 12.12
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Passive Immunity
Antibodies are obtained from someone else
Conferred naturally from a mother to her fetus
Conferred artificially from immune serum or gamma globulin

Immunological memory does not occur Protection provided by borrowed antibodies

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Antibodies (Immunoglobulins) (Igs)

Soluble proteins secreted by B cells (plasma cells) Carried in blood plasma Capable of binding specifically to an antigen

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Antibody Classes
Antibodies of each class have slightly different roles
Five major immunoglobulin classes (Do Not Need to know!)
IgM can fix complement

IgA found mainly in mucus

IgD important in activation of B cell IgG can cross the placental barrier IgE involved in allergies
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Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response

Antigens must be presented by macrophages to an immunocompetent T cell (antigen presentation)
T cells must recognize nonself and self (double recognition)

After antigen binding, clones form as with B cells, but different classes of cells are produced
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Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response

Figure 12.15

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T Cell Clones
Cytotoxic T cells
Specialize in killing infected cells
Insert a toxic chemical (perforin)

Helper T cells
Recruit other cells to fight the invaders

Interact directly with B cells

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T Cell Clones
Suppressor T cells
Release chemicals to suppress the activity of T and B cells Stop the immune response to prevent uncontrolled activity

A few members of each clone are memory cells

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Summary of the Immune Response

Figure 12.16
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Organ Transplants and Rejection

Major types of grafts
Autografts tissue transplanted from one site to another on the same person

Isografts tissue grafts from an identical person (identical twin)

Allografts tissue taken from an unrelated person Xenografts tissue taken from a different animal species
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Organ Transplants and Rejection

Autografts and isografts are ideal donors Xenografts are never successful Allografts are more successful with a closer tissue match

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Disorders of Immunity: Immunodeficiencies

Production or function of immune cells or complement is abnormal May be congenital or acquired Includes AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

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Disorders of Immunity: Autoimmune Diseases

The immune system does not distinguish between self and nonself The body produces antibodies and sensitized T lymphocytes that attack its own tissues

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Disorders of Immunity: Autoimmune Diseases

Examples of autoimmune diseases
Multiple sclerosis white matter of brain and spinal cord are destroyed

Myasthenia gravis impairs communication between nerves and skeletal muscles Juvenile diabetes destroys pancreatic beta cells that produce insulin
Rheumatoid arthritis destroys joints
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Disorders of Immunity: Autoimmune Diseases

Examples of autoimmune diseases (continued)
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) affects kidney, heart, lung and skin Glomerulonephritis impairment of renal function

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Immune Deficiency: AIDS

HIV targets cells Retrovirus attaches to CD4 receptors of T helper cells

Transmission: Body fluids, i.e., blood, semen, breast milk, vaginal secretions

The Structure of HIV

Figure 9.19

Time Course of the Progression of AIDS after HIV Infection

Figure 9.21

AIDS progression:
Phase I: few weeks to a few years; flu like symptoms, swollen lymph nodes, chills, fever, fatigue, body aches. Virus is multiplying, antibodies are made but ineffective for complete virus removal
Phase II: within six months to 10 years; opportunistic infections present, Helper T cells affected, 5% may not progress to next phase Phase III: Helper T cells fall below 200 per cubic millimeter of blood AND the person has an opportunistic infection or type of cancer. Person is now termed as having AIDS May include pneumonia, meningitis, tuberculosis, encephalitis, Kaposis sarcoma, and non-Hodgkins lumphoma.

AIDS Pandemic
More than 36 million infected with HIV worldwide Most infections in sub-Sahara of Africa Increasing spread in Asia and India Most often spread by heterosexual contact outside U.S.